What is cross-cultural or intercultural communication

Unit 1 Context – Lecture

UNIT 1 LECTURE

LECTURE

Foundations

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What is cross-cultural or intercultural
communication?

Culture is a group of people in a social
system that influences the way those people live. Culture can refer to a
disability group (e.g., deaf culture), religious group (e.g., Amish), ethnicity
(e.g., Turkish American, age (e.g., youth), sexual orientation (e.g., lesbian),
nationality (e.g., Norwegian passport), immigration status (e.g., first
generation American), social class (e.g., working class), geographical area
(e.g., from the US west coast), gender (e.g., masculine), first language (e.g.,
grew up speaking Spanish), and more. Cultural influences affect the way we
learn, process, communicate, and understand the world.

Communication is the process of connecting
meaning from one person to another. Communication is an extremely complex and
limited process. The chances of one person attaching exactly the same meaning
to something else is virtually impossible. A major reason is because each
person brings his or her own perspective to the communication context. The
context is the environment or situation where the communication occurs.

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an external site.)

Intercultural communication is when the
people involves people from different major cultures (e.g., national group) or
different microcultures (co-culture, such as Hispanic American). Cross-cultural
communication implies that the communication is creating a crisscross
communication, coming or going to two different places. Effective cross
cultural communication is when you have sensitivity to the context and
perspective of the other person, who comes to the communication from a
different cultural perspective.

So, to communicate across cultures, one
must be open, nonjudgmental, and see to see the other person’s perspective. The
key is approaching other people as equals. No individual’s culture is better
than anyone else’s, just different. Each person sees the world is the way that
is accurate and truthful for that individual. People do not have to agree with
each other’s perceptions. If they want to communicate with people of other
cultures, however, they need to accept the validity of the other person’s point
of view as just as valid as their own. That sounds easy, but the process can be
extremely complicated and difficult.

Directly quoted fromNeuliep, J. W. (2009).
Intercultural communication: A contextual approach (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage. Note, your professor may require a different textbook for this
course.

I. The Need for Intercultural Communication

A. The Benefits of Intercultural
Communication. International tensions in the Middle East, Northern Ireland, and
Eastern Europe are striking examples of the need for effective and competent
intercultural communication. In addition to demonstrating the need for
competent intercultural communication, the initial part of the chapter
emphasizes that while the challenges of an increasingly diverse world are
great, the benefits are even greater.

1. Healthier communities

2. Increased international, national, and
local commerce,

3. Reduced conflict, and

4. Personal growth through increased
tolerance.

B. Diversity in The United States. This
part of the chapter demonstrates that the United States is becoming
increasingly diverse. One need not travel to far away countries to experience
the benefits of intercultural communication described above.

1.The results of the 2000 census profile
the remarkable racial and ethnic diversity that has been a hallmark of American
society. From 1990 to 2000, the U.S. population growth of 33 million people was
the largest census-to-census increase in American history. In early 2008, there
were approximately 303 million people in the United States (i.e., roughly 4.5%
of the world’s population). Of these people, nearly 70% were White non-
Hispanics, approximately 13% were Hispanic and 13% were Black non-Hispanic, 4%
were Asian or Pacific Islander, and 1% were American Indian.

2. Overall, from 2000 to 2004 the U.S.
population grew 4.3%. But different racial and ethnic groups grow at different
rates. For example, White non-Hispanics make up nearly70% of the U.S.
population today. But Census Bureau data suggest that by the year 2050,the
non-Hispanic White population will shrink to approximately 50% of the
population. Conversely, the Hispanic population will grow to nearly 25% of the
population and the Asian population will grow to about 8%. The Black population
is estimated to remain relatively stable at about 15% of the population by 2050

3. An increasing number of groups are
revitalizing their ethnic traditions and promoting their cultural and ethnic
uniqueness through language. Language is a vital part of maintaining one’s
cultural heritage. According to 2003 data, nearly one in five people in the
United States (i.e., 47 million) speak a language other than English at home.
Of those 47 million, nearly 30 million speak Spanish at home. Ten percent speak
an Indo-European language, and about 7% speak an Asian or Pacific Islander language.
Interestingly, most of the people who speak a language other than English at
home report that they speak English very well. When these people are combined
with those who speak only English at home, more than 92% of the U.S. population
has no difficulty speaking English.

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4. Although the United States prides itself
as a nation of immigrants, there is a growing sense of uncertainty, fear, and
distrust between different cultural, ethnic, and linguistic groups. These
feelings create anxiety which can foster separatism rather than unity.

5. Many Americans are frustrated, confused,
and uncertain. Only through intercultural communication can such uncertainty be
reduced. Only when diverse people come together and interact can they unify
rather than separate. Unity is impossible without communication. Intercultural
communication is a necessity.

C. Human Communication. Communication is
everywhere. Even when they are alone, people are bombarded with communication.
Human communication–that is, the ability to symbolize and use
language–separates humans from animals. Communication with others is the
essence of what it means to be human. Communication is the vehicle by which
people initiate, maintain, and terminate their relationships with others.

Welcome in various languages.

II. The Nature of Human Communication

A. Process. A process is anything that is
on-going, ever-changing, and continuous.

B. Dynamic.The terms “process”
and “dynamic” are closely related. Part of what makes communication a
process is its dynamic nature. Something that is dynamic is considered active
and/or forceful.

C. Interactive-Transactive.Communication is
interactive and transactive because it occurs between people. Communication
requires the active participation of two people simultaneously sending and
receiving messages.

D. Symbolic. A symbol is an arbitrarily
selected and learned stimulus that represents something else. Symbols can be
verbal or nonverbal. Symbols are the vehicle by which the thoughts and ideas of
one person can be communicated to another person.

E. Intentional. Perhaps one of the most
debated issues regarding the communication process centers around
intentionality. Intentional communication exists whenever two or more people
consciously engage in interaction with some purpose. Unintentional
communication may exist, however. In this book, the type of communication that
will be discussed is intentional communication.

F. Contextual. Communication is dependent
on the context in which it occurs. A context is the cultural, physical,
relational, and perceptual environment in which communication occurs.

G. Ubiquitous. That communication is
ubiquitous simply means that communication is everywhere, done by everyone, all
of the time. Humans are constantly bombarded with verbal and nonverbal
messages. Wherever one goes there is some communication happening.

H. Cultural. Culture shapes communication
and communication is culture bound. People from different cultures communicate
differently. The verbal and nonverbal symbols we use to communicate with our
friends and families are strongly influenced by our culture.

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III. Human Communication Apprehension

A. Many people experience fear and anxiety
when communicating with others, particularly in situations such as public
speaking, class presentations, a first date, or during a job interview. The
fear or anxiety people experience when communicating with others is called
communication apprehension (CA)

B. There are four types of CA, including
traitlike CA, context-based CA, audience-based CA, and situational CA.

1.Traitlike CA is an enduring general
personality predisposition where an individual experiences CA most of the time
across most communication situations.

2. Context-based CA is restricted to a
certain generalized context, such as public speaking, group meetings, or job
interviews. Persons with context-based CA experienced anxiety only in certain
contexts and not others.

3. Audience-based CA is triggered not by
the specific context, but by the specific person or audience with whom one is
communicating. Hence, persons with audience-based CA experience anxiety when
communicating with strangers, or their superiors.

4. Situational-based CA, experienced by
virtually everyone, occurs with the combination of a specific context and a
specific audience. For example, students may only feel anxious interacting with
professors when they are alone with the professor in the professor’s office.

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IV. The Nature of Culture

In this book, culture is defined as an
accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and behaviors, shared by an
identifiable group of people with a common history and verbal and nonverbal
symbol system.

A. Culture as an Accumulated Pattern of
Values, Beliefs and Behaviors. Cultures can be defined by their value and
belief systems and by the actions of their members. People who exist in the
same culture generally share similar values and beliefs. The values of a
particular culture lead to a set of expectations and rules prescribing how
people should behave in that culture.

B. Culture as an Identifiable Group of
People with a Common History. Because the members of a particular culture share
similar values, beliefs and behaviors, they are identifiable as a distinct
group. In addition to their shared values, beliefs and behaviors, the members
of a particular culture share a common history.

C. Culture as a Verbal and Nonverbal Symbol
System. The verbal and nonverbal symbols with which the members of a culture
communicate are culture bound. Although two cultures may share the same verbal
code they may have dramatically different verbal styles. Nonverbal codes
systems vary significantly across cultures also.

D. Microcultural Groups. Within most
cultures there are groups of people, or microcultures, that coexist within the
mainstream society. Micro-cultures exist within the broader rules and
guidelines of the dominant cultural milieu but are distinct in some way,
perhaps racially, linguistically, or via their sexual orientation, age, or even
occupation.

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V. A Contextual Model of Intercultural
Communication

Intercultural communication occurs whenever
a minimum of two persons from different cultures or micro-cultures come together
and exchange verbal and nonverbal symbols. A central theme throughout this book
is that intercultural communication is contextual.

A. Intercultural communication occurs
within a variety of contexts, including a cultural, micro-cultural, environmental,
perceptual, and socio-relational context. The general theme of this book, as
represented in the model, is that intercultural communication is defined by the
interdependence of these various contexts. See the diagram in your textbook.

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B. Intercultural Communication and
Uncertainty. When we interact with someone from a different culture we are
faced with a lot of uncertainty. Uncertainty about the other person may make us
feel nervous and anxious.

1. Some types of communication situations
may be more or less anxiety producing than others. Initial interaction with
someone, or interacting with someone from a different culture may produce
heightened anxiety. If we are too anxious about interacting with strangers, we
tend to avoid them. This type of communication anxiety can be labeled
intercultural communication apprehension; that is, the fear or anxiety
associated with either real or anticipated interaction with people from
different groups, especially different cultural or ethnic groups.

C. Intercultural Communication
Apprehension. Successfully interacting with someone from a different culture
requires a degree of communication competence. Most models of communication
competence include a cognitive, affective, and behavioral component.

1. The cognitive component refers to how
much one knows about communication.

2. The affective component includes one’s
motivation to approach or avoid communication.

3. The behavioral component refers to the
skills one has to interact competently.

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VI: Fundamental Assumptions About
Intercultural Communication

A. Assumption #1: During intercultural
communication, the message sent is usually not the message received.

1. Whenever people from different cultures
come together and exchange messages they bring with them a whole host of
thoughts, values, emotions, and behaviors that were planted and cultivated by
culture. This process of encoding, decoding and interpreting is filled with
cultural noise. To this extent, all intercultural exchanges are necessarily, to
some extent, charged with ethnocentrism.

B. Assumption #2: Intercultural
communication is primarily a nonverbal act between people.

1. Some researchers have suggested that as
much as 90 percent of all communication is nonverbal. Cultural values, the
expression of intimacy, power, and status and among communicators is typically
accomplished nonverbally through paralinguistic cues, proxemics, haptics,
oculesics, and olfactics.

C. Assumption #3: Intercultural
communication necessarily involves a clash of communicator style.

1. In the United States we value, and
employ, a very direct and personal style of verbal communication. Personal pronouns
are an essential ingredient to the composition of just about any utterance.
Many cultures, however, prefer an indirect and impersonal communication style.
In these cultures, there is no need to articulate every message. True
understanding is implicit, coming not from words but from actions in the
environment where speakers provide only hints or insinuations.

D. Assumption #4: Intercultural
Communication is a Group Phenomena Experienced by Individuals.

1. Whenever we interact with a person from
a different culture we carry with us assumptions and impressions of that other
person. The specific verbal and nonverbal messages that we exchange are usually
tailored for the person based on those assumptions and impressions. Often times
such assumptions and impressions are based on characteristics of the other
person by virtue of his/her membership in groups such as his/her culture, race,
sex, age, and occupation group. In other words, we have a tendency to see
others, not as individuals with unique thoughts, ideas, and goals, but rather
as an “Asian,” or a “woman,” or an “old person,” or “a cab driver.” In other
words, we do not see the person, we see the groups to which the person belongs.

E. Assumption #5: Intercultural
Communication is a Cycle of Stress and Adaptation.

1. When we come together with a person from
a different culture, we may feel uncertain, apprehensive, and anxious. Such
feelings are stressful. We can learn and adapt to such stress and eventually
grow. During intercultural communication we have to be mindful that the
communication strategies we use with persons with whom we are familiar may not
be effective with persons from other cultures. Thus, we have to learn to adapt
and adjust our communication style.

LECTURE

The Cultural Context

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Directly quoted fromNeuliep, J. W. (2009).
Intercultural communication: A contextual approach (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage. Note, your professor may require you to read a different book for the
course.

I. Individualism Collectivism

A. The most relevant feature of
individualism is valuing personal independence. Valuing personal independence
involves putting an emphasis on personal responsibility and freedom of choice,
personal autonomy and achieving self-fulfillment. Moreover, individualists
strive to maintain distinctive personal attitudes and opinions and prefer
self-directed behavior and independence of groups. Individualists tend to see
themselves as unique from others. Emphasis is placed on individuals’ goals over
group goals. In individualistic cultures, social behavior is guided by personal
goals, perhaps at the expense of other types of goals. Individualistic cultures
stress values that benefit the individual person. The self is promoted because
each person is viewed as uniquely endowed and possessing distinctive talent and
potential. Individuals are encouraged to pursue and develop their abilities and
aptitudes.

B. The central ingredient of collectivism
is the assumption that groups bind and mutually obligate individuals.
Collectivism is linked to a sense of duty to group, interdependence to others,
harmony, and working with the group. In collectivistic societies group goals
have precedence over individual goals. Collectivistic cultures stress values
that serve the ingroup by subordinating personal goals for the sake of
preserving the ingroup. Collectivistic societies are characterized by extended
primary groups such as the family, neighborhood, or occupational group in which
members have diffuse mutual obligations and expectations based on their status
or rank. In collectivistic cultures people are not seen as isolated
individuals. People see themselves as interdependent with others (e.g., their
ingroup) where responsibility is shared and accountability is collective.

C. Although they sound like opposite
dimensions of cultural variability, individualism and collectivism are not
mutually exclusive; that is, they can coexist within a person of any culture.
The degree of individualism or collectivism within an individual may be
triggered by the social context and one’s social relations. Individuals can be
characterized by specific combinations of individualist and collectivist
tendencies. A person may find that individualist relations may be motivated in
particular situations, such as in business relations, whereas with family
members the relationship is collectivist.

Variation can be seen in individualist and
collectivist attitudes in different types of relationships such as with one’s
spouse, parent, neighbor, or coworker. Recent research suggests that
competitiveness is not a necessary feature of individualism, however. Americans
generally score higher in individualism than Japanese. But when competitiveness
is included in the measurement of individualism, the difference between
Americans and Japanese disappear (i.e., they score the same on measures of
individualism.

D. Because there can be considerable within
country-variation, labeling a particular country or culture as individualistic
or collectivistic is difficult and may lead to overgeneralizations. Are
Americans (i.e., European Americans) more individualistic and less
collectivistic than others groups? In general, the answer is yes, Americans are
more individualistic and less collectivistic than other groups. In comparison
with nearly 50 other countries, Europeans Americans are more individualistic
than all but twelve. Regarding collectivism, Europeans Americans were lower in
collectivism as well. There were exceptions, though, where Americans were
higher in collectivism than New Zealand, France, Singapore, Tanzania, Egypt,
Costa Rica, and Venezuela.

Intercultural Conversation Between
Individualist and Collectivist Cultures

1. In this exchange, Mr. Patterson, an
American manager working in Korea, is meeting with his supervisor Mr. Wyman,
who is also American. The United States is considered more individualistic than
Korea. Mr. Patterson reports to Mr. Wyman about some changes he has made within
several of his sales teams. Later, Park Young Sam, their Korean counterpart,
enters into the dialogue.

E. Although the United States is considered
individualistic, considerable regional variation exists. Due to ecological,
historical, and institutional practices, the Deep South is the most
collectivistic region of the US. Defeat in the Civil War, the institution of
slavery, relative poverty, and the prominence of religion all contribute to the
collectivistic tendencies of the South. In addition, the Southwest, having been
settled by Mexican and Spanish populations before white settlers entered the
area, is also considered fairly collectivistic. Hawaii, too, has a culture
different from that of the rest of the US with approximately 65 percent of its
population coming from Asian cultures. Hence, much of the culture has collectivistic
characteristics. Hawaii, too, would be considered collectivistic. On the other
hand, the Mountain West and Great Plans is thought to be the most
individualistic region in the US.

1. In their research Vandello and Cohen
created an index of collectivism designed to measure collectivism in different
regions of the US. Their index was composed of eight items, including the
percentage of people living alone, percentage of elderly people living alone,
percentage of households with grandchildren in them, divorce to marriage ratio,
percentage of people with no religious affiliation, average percentage of
voting Libertarian over the last four presidential elections, ratio of people
carpooling to work to people living alone, and percentage of people self-employed.
Their index showed a general pattern of relative collectivism in the South,
particularly in the former slave states with maximum individualism in the Great
Plains and Mountain West. Montana was the most individualistic state and Hawaii
was the most collectivistic.

F. A given culture’s orientation toward
individualism or collectivism has important behavioral consequences for that
culture’s members. Among collectivists, social behavior is guided by the group.
Along with group membership come prescribed duties and obligations. Among
individualists, social behavior is guided by one’s personal attitudes,
motivations, and other internal processes. Where individualists are taught to
compete, the collectivist learns to cooperate.

G. The Pancultural Self. Yet there is a
growing body of literature that suggests that the individual self is
pancultural. That is, that the individual self is more fundamental to
self-definition than the collective self across all cultures. In other words,
people in all cultures strive to maintain and achieve positive self-regard as a
primary motivation. Current research suggests that both individualistic and
collectivistic cultures sanction and even endorse self-enhancement, but via
different means. In individualistic and collectivistic cultures, a person’s
motivations for behavior and self-definition stem primarily from one’s personal
identity and an independent sense of self. In both individualistic and
collectivistic cultures, self-enhancement is sanctioned through upward mobility,
status seeking and general promotions of the self. In both types of cultures,
people engage in strategic efforts to self-enhance.

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II. High and Low Context Communication

A. The degree to which interactants focus
on these contexts while communicating varies considerably from culture to
culture. For example, some persons choose to focus more on the verbal codes
than on the nonverbal elements while others will actively monitor the nonverbal
elements of the context. Edward Hall describes the former as low context and
latter as high context.

B. High context cultures generally have
restricted code systems. Users of a restricted code system rely more on the
contextual elements of the communication setting for information than on the
actual language code. Within a high context transaction, the interactant will
look to the physical, socio-relational, and perceptual environment for
information. Of particular importance is the social relationship between the
interactants, especially their status. Because interactants in a high context
culture know and understand each other and their appropriate role, words are
not necessary to convey meaning.

C. In a low context transaction, the verbal
code is the primary source of information. Low context cultures generally rely
on elaborated codes. Unlike users of restricted codes, users of elaborated
codes rely extensively on the verbal code system for creating and interpreting
meaning. Information to be shared with others is coded in the verbal message.
Although persons in low context transactions recognize the nonverbal
environment, they tend to focus more on the verbal context. Moreover, the rules
and expectations are explicitly explained. Users of elaborated codes are
dependent upon words to convey meaning and may become uncomfortable with
silence. In low context transactions, the communicants feel a need to speak.

D. An Intercultural Conversation Between
High and Low Context Cultures

1. In this exchange, Mr. Hutchinson is the
head of Information Technology (IT) within his organization. Mr. Wong is the
lead computer programmer. Mr. Wong was born and raised in Malaysia, a high
context culture. The two are discussing when Mr. Wong will put a computer
program into production. Note that Mr. Hutchinson’s speech is direct and to the
point while Mr. Wong’s is indirect and subtle. In simple frequencies, Mr.
Hutchinson uses four times as many words as Mr. Wong.

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III. Value Orientations

A. Values affect intercultural
communication. When people from different cultures come together to interact,
their messages are guided by and reflect their fundamental value orientations.
An understanding of cultural value systems can help to identify similarities
and differences between people from different cultures from which intercultural
communication can proceed.

B. Like culture, values are learned; they
are not innate nor universal. Values guide us in the selection and
justification of social behavior. Values prescribe what is preferred or
prohibited. Values are the evaluative component of an individual’s attitudes
and beliefs. Values guide how we think about things in terms of what is
right/wrong and correct/incorrect. Values trigger positive or negative
emotions.

C. Although any individual probably has a
unique set of values, there are also sets of values that are representative of
a particular culture. Francis Hsu has outlined what he thinks are the nine
basic values of Americans.

D. An interesting contrast with American
values, an individualistic low context culture, are those of the People’s
Republic of China (PRC), a collectivistic high context culture. The Chinese
Culture Connection (CCC) constructed a listing of 40 dominant Chinese values.
They then reduced the list to four basic factors, labeled Integration, Confucian
Work Dynamic, Human-Heartedness, and Moral Discipline.

E. Israeli Psychologist Shalom Schwartz and
his colleagues have studied values across cultures. Schwartz argues that there
is a universal structure to values recognized by all cultures. He contends that
values represent, in the form of goals, three universal requirements for human
existence to which all cultures must be responsive, including (a) the
biological needs of individuals, (b) the need for social coordination, and (c)
the survival and welfare needs of groups. Based on these three universal human
requirements, Schwartz derived eleven distinct motivational types of values.

F. Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodbeck
developed the concept of value orientations. They argued that in every culture
there are universal problems and conditions that must be addressed. For a given
culture, however, there are only a limited number of solutions to these
problems. These possible solutions are motivated by the values of the culture.
Initially, Kluckhohn and Strodbeck created five sets of value orientations.
Several years later, Condon and Yousef extended the set to a total of 25 value
orientations. Condon and Yousef organized the value orientations around six
dominant themes, including self, family, society, human nature, nature, and the
supernatural.

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IV. Power Distance

A. Although many cultures declare and even
legislate equality for their members, all cultures must deal with the issue of
human inequality. Although some cultures, like the United States, affirm
equality for its members, some form of inequality exists in virtually every
culture. Inequality can occur in areas such as prestige, wealth, power, human
rights, and technology, among others. Issues of inequality fall within the rubric
of what Hofstede calls “power distance.”

B. Cultures with a smaller power distance
emphasize that inequalities among people should be minimized and that there
should be interdependence between less and more powerful people. In cultures
with small power distance (e.g., USA, Canada, Austria) family members are
generally treated as equal and familial decisions are reached democratically.

C. In cultures with a larger power
distance, inequalities among people are both expected and desired. Less
powerful people should be dependent on more powerful people. In larger power
distance cultures (e.g., Philippines, Mexico, India) children are expected to
be obedient. In many larger power distance cultures there is a strict hierarchy
among family members where typically the father rules authoritatively followed
by the eldest son and moving down the ladder by age and sex.

D. Power distance affects the verbal and
nonverbal behavior of a culture. When making evaluations of authorities,
persons in small power distance cultures placed more value on the quality of
their treatment by authorities. In contrast, those with higher power-distance
values focused more strongly on the favorability of their outcomes. Tyle, Lind,
and Huo suggest that the degree to which authorities can gain acceptance for
themselves and their decisions through providing dignified, respectful
treatment is influenced by the cultural values of the disputants. Specifically,
they found that dispute resolution methods, such as mediation, are more likely
to be effective among those who have low power-distance values.

1. Ting-Toomey and others argue that
persons in all cultures have face concerns. Face represents an individual’s
sense of positive self-image in the context of communication. According to Ting-Toomey,
everyone, in all cultures, has face concerns during conflict. Self-face is the
concern for one’s own image, other-face is concern for another’s image, and
mutual-face is concern for both parties. Facework is used to manage these face
concerns during conflict. Ting-Toomey’s research has shown that small power
distance cultures have a greater self-face concern, have lesser other- and
mutual-face concerns, use more dominating facework and use less avoiding
facework.

2. Other research has investigated how
power distance affects reactions to messages about alcohol warnings. Anglos
(low power distance) rated the warnings without the Surgeon General as more
believable than warnings with the Surgeon General; the opposite was true for
Latinos (high power distance).

3. Power distance also affects the
nonverbal behavior of a culture. In many large power distance cultures, persons
of lower status are taught not to give direct eye contact to a person of higher
status. Indirect eye contact from a subordinate signals to the superior that
the subordinate recognizes his/her lower status. In large power distance
cultures when a person of high status hands something to a person of lower
status (e.g., a book), the lower status person will often use both hands to
receive the item; again, recognizing his/her lower status.

E. An Intercultural Conversation between
Large and Small PD Orientations

1. Different PD orientations manifest
themselves in inter