A discussion of what you have personally learned, -your weaknesses and your strengths. Also, discuss your plans for improving your learning experience “of some aspects in the chapters””.

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1. A brief overview of the chapters along with the notes you took during the classes covering the chapters. Write, a detailed description of some aspects of the chapters and the experience that you felt was particularly meaningful for you.

3. A discussion of what you have personally learned, –your weaknesses and your strengths. Also, discuss your plans for improving your learning experience “of some aspects in the chapters”, how you are going to use the internet “in particular” to fill the gaps in your understanding.

Don’t plagiarize
Write a summary “or concept map” + reflection using your own words

Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics (2011)

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics

GRAMMATICAL MEANING: NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES
Chapter 13

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Lexical meaning:
semantic information carried by major lexical units (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)
Grammatical meaning:
semantic information in a sentence not carried by major lexical units.
Grammatical meaning can be treated under four major headings
LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL MEANING

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
The meanings carried by grammatical elements
Meanings linguistic expressions have by virtue of belonging to particular grammatical categories (noun, verb, etc.)
Meanings signaled by sequential order of elements
Meaning carried by grammatical constructions
FOUR MAJOR HEADINGS OF GRAMMATICAL ELEMENTS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
One way of characterizing meanings by grammatical units:
Closed-set items
Open-set items
MEANINGS CARRIED BY GRAMMATICAL UNITS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Belong to small substitution sets
Principal function is to articulate the grammatical structure of sentences
Change at a relatively slow rate through time
Single speaker is unlikely to see loss or gain of items in their lifetime.
Inventory of items in a particular closed-set grammatical category is effectively fixed
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLOSED-SET ITEMS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Belong to relatively large substitution sets
Relatively rapid turnover in membership of substitution classes
Single speaker is likely to encounter many losses and gains in a single lifetime
Principal function is to carry the meaning of a sentence
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN-SET ITEMS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Both closed- and open-set items carry meaning
Different functions mean that there are differences in the characteristics of the meanings they carry
A closed-set item, as a grammatical element, has to be able to combine without anomaly with a wide range of roots
must have a meaning which is flexible, or broad enough, or sufficiently `attenuated’, not to generate clashes too easily
must signal contrasts which recur frequently
CLOSED VS. OPEN-SET ITEMS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Open-set:
no limit to the particularity or richness of the meaning an open-set element
no requirements for recurrent meanings or wide co-occurrence possibilities
typically carry the burden of the semantic content of utterances.
participate in complex paradigmatic and syntagmatic structures
content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) verbs) prototypically have one open-set morpheme (usually called the root morpheme) and may also have one or more closed-set items in the form of affixes
CLOSED SET VS. OPEN-SET ITEMS (C0NTINUED)

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Languages differ in the degree to which the order of elements is grammatically significant
Semantic effects changes in the order of elements produce
In English, word order goes to the heart of grammar and signals basic aspects of meaning
In Latin, word order does not signal basic grammatical relations
Change of word order in Latin can have the same sort of effect on information structure

MEANINGS SIGNALIZED BY WORD ORDER

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Alternative perspective
Incorporates order information along with other types of information
Grammatical constructions are bearers of meaning independent of the lexical items
MEANINGS CARRIED BY CONSTRUCTIONS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Number:
an inflectional category of nouns or noun phrases
not found in all languages
Semantically all concerned with how many there are of some item
The number system in English has only two terms:
singular
Plural
NUMBER AND COUNTABILITY

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Cannot occur in the singular without a determiner
Occur normally in the plural
Quantifiable by a few, many, and numerals, but not by much or little
COUNT NOUNS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Can occur in the singular without a determiner
Are odd in the plural
Are quantifiable by a little, much, but not by a few, many

MASS NOUNS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
The vast majority of nouns in English can be found with both count and mass uses
For the majority of nouns, one use is intuitively more basic than the other
Two significant phenomena and their semantic correlates:
basic count nouns used as mass nouns
basic mass nouns used as count nouns
SECONDARY USES OF COUNT AND MASS NOUNS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Basic count nouns used as mass nouns
Basic mass nouns used as count nouns
Semi-mass use of count nouns
Singular nouns with optional plural concord
Plural nouns with optional singular concord
Pluralia tanta

SECONDARY USES

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
In many languages it is not possible to count things directly
A special grammatical element called a classifier is necessary
usually a separate word or an affix
Encodes some semantic property of the noun being counted
Classifiers

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
A classification system for nouns
Affects grammatical matters such as agreement and pronominal reference
GENDER

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Many different types of gender system can be found in the world’s languages
Most widespread are those which correlate to a greater or lesser degree with the sex of the referent
Used to make a distinction between natural gender and grammatical gender.
Appropriate pronoun can be predicted with a high degree of success on the basis of the sex of the referent
GENDER SYSTEMS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics

Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics (2011)

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics

EXTENSIONS OF MEANING
Chapter 12

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
The reading of a word with the earliest recorded use.
The most frequently occurring reading of a word.
The default reading of a word.
The reading from which the most plausible path of change begins.
The reading most closely related to basic human experience.
ESSENCE OF LITERALNESS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Word is entrenched and familiar part of a language
Speakers no longer feel that a figure of speech is involved at all
NATURALIZED EXTENSIONS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Readings which are well established
Presumably have entries in the mental lexicon
Are felt to be figures of speech
ESTABLISHED EXTENSIONS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Readings are ones for which there are no entries in the mental lexicon
They cannot be `looked up‘
Have to be generated and interpreted using strategies of meaning extension such as metaphor and metonymy
NOVEL EXTENSIONS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Dictionary definition: “The use of a word or phrase to mean something different from the literal meaning” (Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary)
Lakoff:
metaphor is all-pervasive in language
For most part effortlessly interpreted
Deserves constructive consideration
METAPHOR

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Solidly grounded in language
Meaning of a word constituted a semantic field
consisted of all the possible contexts of the word organized in terms of normality
the most normal contexts forming the core region of the field
least normal forming the periphery
Semantic field of every word encompassed the whole vocabulary
Each word imposed a different `core-periphery’ organization on it.
HAAS: INTERACTION OF SEMANTIC FIELDS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
A new semantic field was created
Core was formed by the contexts with the highest joint degree of normality for both words.
New semantic field defined a new meaning
the metaphoric meaning

TWO WORDS BROUGHT INTO INTERACTION

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Rejected both the substitution view of metaphor and the comparison view
Mechanism of metaphor involved the projection of a set of associative implications derived from one entity onto another entity.
The implications are not necessarily identical for the two subjects
The implicative complex of the secondary subject is an analogue model of the implicative complex intended to be inferred for the primary subject.

MAX BLACK

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Distinction is made between representative and interpretive uses of language
parallel to the literal/figurative distinction
This account of metaphor incorporates two significant claims:
metaphor is nothing special or deviant
simply an extreme case of `loose talk‘
the interpretation of an utterance used interpretively is very much a function of context
interpreters look to maximize contextual relevance with the least expenditure of effort

RELEVANCE THEORY

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Metaphors are:
an essential component of human cognition
conceptual in nature
a means whereby ever more abstract and intangible areas of experience can be conceptualized in terms of the familiar and concrete
LAKOFF

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Metaphors involve
a source domain, usually concrete and familiar
a target domain, usually abstract or at least less well structured
a set of mapping relations, or correspondences
LAKOFF

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
The correspondences involved in metaphor are of two kinds:
Ontological-involving entities in the two domains
Epistemic- involving relations of knowledge about the entities
LAKOFF

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Conceptual elements, schemas, involving space, motion and force
Lakoff:
Basic semantic notions such as time, quantity, state, change, cause, and category membership are also metaphorically understood as extensions of image-schemas
IMAGE-SCHEMAS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Lack of context sensitivity
Alleged lack of structure in target domains
Fusion not accounted for
Emergent meaning
CRITICISMS OF LAKOFF

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Neither of the components requires an extended construal
Comparison process is overtly signaled
No need for anomaly as a trigger
Different conceptions remain distinct
Fusion is not characteristic of simile
SIMILIES

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
X (be) like Y
John is like a lion.
X (V) like Y
Tree branches cracked like guns going off.
X (be) Adj. like Y
His skin was dry like parchment.
S ‘as if‘ S2
He acts as if he thinks he’s the boss.
SIMILIE FORMS

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Strategy for extending word-meanings
Responsible for a great proportion of the cases of so-called regular polysemy
Relies on a literal association between two components within a single domain
No restructuring involved

METONYMY

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Historical processes of semantic change linked to synchronic processes of meaning extension.
Synchronic meaning extension forms an essential part of diachronic change
Meaning of a word may change along any of a range of semantic dimensions
SEMANTIC CHANGE

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics

Chapter 6

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics

Chapter 7

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ENG350: Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics

A Guide to Write Journals

How to write the journal?
Summarize the main points in the required chapters in a creative way and write your reflection.
You can write the journal as an essay
Or
You can use a mind map to summarize the main points and then write a reflection in a form of a paragraph under the mind map.

Your journal should include:
1. A brief overview (SUMMARY of the important points) of the required chapters.
2. Write your reflection:
The experience that you felt was particularly meaningful for you.
A discussion of what you have personally learned (your weaknesses and your strengths)
discuss your plans for improving your learning experience “of some aspects in the chapters”, how you are going to use the internet “in particular” to fill the gaps in your understanding.

Important Notes
Please avoid copying form the book or slides
It is ok to copy a short definition but you have to put it in between quotation marks “..….”
Writing a summary means avoiding listing unnecessary information. Be brief but at the same time mention the major and most important points.

If you choose to write an ESSAY, please follow the following guidelines:

This is the format
of an essay

Essay structure

Summary of chapter 2
Summary of chapter 3
Summary of chapter 4
Your reflection
Summary of chapter 5

Your essay should be written in around 600 words.
Use Times New Roman font – size 12.
The paper should be double spaced
Pay attention to grammar, spelling.

If you choose to make a mind map, please follow the following guidelines:

Your mind map should be clear and readable (the reader will read it easily)
Use arrows to show links between different parts
You can create a mind map using a mind mapping tool.
Use different colors to differentiate the level of the map, or the categories.
Use different sizes for each level of the mind map to differentiate the levels. This way it will be easier to read.
Do not forget to write a reflection paragraph under the mind map.
Pay attention to grammar, spelling.
Submit it as a Microsoft Word or PDF

Reem Alharthi

22-02-2022

1. Overview

· Chapter two discussed the relationship between logic and meaning. The chapter introduced some logic tools that we can use to study the meaning of language (e.g., presupposition).

· Chapter three talked about concepts and meaning, and the concept of prototype. Prototype in semantics is generally the “ideal example”. The chapter also discussed the effects of prototype and some problems related to it.

· Chapter four highlighted word and the concepts associated with it such as word forms, lexemes. The chapter also compared words and lexical units.

· Chapter five mainly talked about how words can be represented in different scenarios or contexts and thus they might have different meaning depending on the context.

2. Notes & Description

· A concept is a “general notion or a way to classify a word or idea in your mind”. There are some types of concepts. The first one is superordinate. Superordinate concept follows the general way of classifying. Some of the characteristics of superordinate level category includes the fact that its name differs from the basic level, and the fact that there are fewer attributes. An example of superordinate level category would be speaking about furniture. Furniture can be a chair, table, bed. Therefore, furniture is a general idea. Basic level category is the second type of concepts. It is less general than superordinate. Sometimes there is a feature associated with that concept. For example, a table is less general than a furniture. Moving to the last type of concept, which is subordinate. It is the least degree of generality. This level shows more details and specifications. For instance, a dining table. All of the three types of concepts represent some level of categorization.

· Sinclair proposed two ways to construct utterances in natural language use, open-choice principle and idiom principle. For open-choice principles, speakers analyze each the speech or utterance as word by word. Words in this principle are treated independently. However, idiom principle shows that the idiom or the phrase is constituted to choices. The words in each idiom are sequenced.

· Homonyms are words that have similar pronunciation or spelling and different meaning. There are some common properties among the words, but they are actually different somehow. For example, the words chance and chants have almost the same pronunciations, but their meanings are different. If we look at these two examples, we will see the difference between them. A. I hope you got a chance to do your makeup exam. B. I will listen to chants today. The first word shows a meaning of an opportunity, while the second word shows a meaning of listening to a short music.

· The idea of polysemous goes around the idea that some words can have different meanings and can be used in different ways. The word “get” has multiple meanings and it can be used in different situations. For instance,

A. I went to the library to get a book (to buy).

B. I got a phone call from my sister (to receive).

C. I will get a water (to bring).

D. I will get home around 5:00 pm (to arrive).

3. Learning discussion

After learning the categories of concepts, I reach to a point where I think of other examples as well. It also got me thinking about how the language and words we chose affect the level of categorization. If I heard someone speaking about home, it can be any home. It can be a house for someone, and it can be an apartment for someone else. This level of generality is associated with superordinate. I learned that depending on how specific or general I use features, a level of category can describe that. Although I think that I grasped the idea of categorization level, I still need to go deep and understand more about it. I also think I’m pretty good when it comes to collocation. There is no general way of being good at collocation since it is about the input we receive as a language learner. Collocation is manly the common words that always come together. Being good with collocation is a result of the practice I did before. In addition, I can strongly use certain words to indicate different meanings. I can use the word play to indicate the act of playing or I can use the word play to indicate the act of opening some music.

One of my weaknesses areas is related to word forms. Word forms sound complicated to me. I’m planning to read in details about it and see some sources that explain semantic lessons. Another weakness area is related to the concept of homonyms. It is difficult for me as a second language learner to differentiate between two or more similar words. I think there is no certain rule for that to improve myself. I think what I can do to assist myself is listening or reading a lot. The more I listen and read, I will encounter words that might be alike but with different meaning. Finally, I will always use the internet to further develop my knowledge in addition to Google Scholar source.

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