paper

Case Study 2:

(Group Project: Movie “
American Factory”)

You have been hired (CHANGE AGENT) by CHAIRMAN Cao to address the issues in his company. As a change agent (i.e. consultant), you will 

1. IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM ISSUES at FUYAO.     WHAT (1/2 page)

2. WHY THESE ISSUES ARE OCCURING   WHY (3-4 pages) 

3. HOW TO ADDRESS THESE ISSUES (i.e. suggestions to alleviat these problem issues)   HOW (1-1.5 pages)

IMPORTANT:

· Refer to the theoretical concepts learned in the course to demonstrate your comprehension

· Title page, citations, and reference page needed

The Change Agent
Steven H Kim

Change Agent
NOT THE LEADER
Can be INTERNAL or EXTERNAL (consultants)
HELPS SPONSOR and IMPLEMENTORS stay ALIGNED
NO DIRECT LINE OF AUTHORITY

Change Agent

Gathers

Educates

Advise

Facilitate

Coach

Emergent Model of Change : “CONSULTANCY”

Psychological distance

OBJECTIVE

Support leaders in a (contained or safe environment)

PROSCI : Team Model (REPs of ORG)

Experienced

Credible

Proven TEAMWORK

Networked

Resourced

Roles of the CHANGE AGENT
Know which role is required

EXPERT

Extra PAIR OF HANDS

COLLABORATIVE

Stages of the CONSULTING PROCESS
Entry
Contracting
Diagnosing
Implementing
Evaluating

Internal vs External Change Agents

INTERNAL

Long term work

Internal Knowledge

More initial participation with members (BEGINNING stages)

EXTERNAL

Major ORG. WIDE change

Complex (i.e. change in CEO )

More OBJECTIVITY needed

When INTERVENTION needed (no conflict of interests)

Facilitating Change

Change Agent Tools
Awareness
Need for change
Support
Leaders
Implementation
Mobilize
Stakeholders
Focus
Stakeholders
Leaders

Facilitating Individual Change

Reduce ANXIETY

Decrease SURVIVAL ANXIETY

Increase LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Do not INCREASE SURVIVAL ANXIETY alone

Clear PRACTICAL STEPS

Support EMOTIONAL

Confront: TOUGH CONVERSATIONS

Facilitating Individual Change

Precontemplation

How could things be better?

What would happen if we don’t change?

Contemplation

This change can help, but what concerns you?

Preparation

Any thoughts on how you can go about this change?

Action

What specifically could you do?

What worked and didn’t work?

How can you adjust?

Facilitating TEAM CHANGE

Identify TYPE OF TEAM (i.e. virtual, project)

How much team or teamwork needed

Greater complexity = greater teamwork

Team’s 5 elements

Mission

Roles

Process

Interpersonal

Inter – team relationships

Understand TUCKMAN’S STAGES OF TEAM FORMATION

Facilitating TEAM CHANGE

Be AWARE OF …

Doing their own thing

FRAGMENTATION – I’LL JUST DO MY PART

Personal Agendas taking PRECEDENCE

GROUP THINK

Provide

HOLDING ENVIRONMENTS

BE AWARE , MONITOR

MBTI / STRENGTH FINDER

Facilitating ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

FLUID

Emergent

Complex

LINEAR

Planned

Programmed

CHANGE KALEIDOSCOPE
Baldwin & Hailey
Linear (planned)

TIME

How fast

SCOPE

Whole or part

PRESERVATION

What should be KEPT

DIVERSITY

Homogeneous or diverse

CAPABILITY

Can we do it (i.e. skills, competence)

CAPACITY

Resources

READINESS

Motivated

POWER

Support from leadership

Organization Design Choices

Change Path

Types of change

Change Start point

Top down , or bottom up

Change Style

Collaborative or directive

Change Target

Attitudes and values, behaviours, or outputs

Change Levers

Interventions to be deployed (i.e. technical, political, cultural, interpersonal)

Change Roles

Who is responsible for leading and implementing change

Organizational Culture

Needs careful consideration

Can WORK WITH or AGAINST change

PRESENT and IDEAL state

Culture shift: EXAMPLES

Fragmented to Communal

Participation (safety)

Reward (teamwork)

Hierarchy (top down) to Ahocracy (flat)

INCREASE AUTONOMY (POWER)

Ask for FEEDBACK (higher ups)

Increase INNOVATION, CREATIVITY from BOTTOM UP

Change Agent

Can’t just PLOW ALONG

Must REFLECT

GET ON THE BALCONY

See WHAT IS ACTUALLY HAPPENING

ACT

REFLECT AGAIN

COMPETENCIES OF CHANGE AGENT

Leon de Caluwe & Vermack (2004)

BLUE

MACHINE

PLAN, DESIGN

YELLOW

POLITICAL

INTERESTS

WHITE

FLUX and TRANSFORMATION

EMERGENCE

GREEEN

ORGANISM

LEARNING

RED

MACHINE & ORGANISM

PRACTICAL with PSYCHOLOGICAL support

Opposition to Change Agent

Fear of EMBARRASMENT

Threat of EXPOSURE

CULTURAL

DON’T ASK DON’T TELL

IGNORE THE OBVIOUS

BY – PASS ERRORS

DON’T DISCUSS

DON’T DISCUSS THE FACT THAT YOU CAN’T DISCUSS

Change Agent

Authority , GRAVITAS

Emotional Intelligence

Create RIGHT ENVIRONMENT

Know Thy Self

Self awareness

Know your values/beliefs

High confidence , self – identity , self – efficacy

Well – Being (SELF CARE)

Create HOLDING ENVIRONMENT
Psychological safety
Boundaries clear
Scope
Meeting time, length
Place
Environment (i.e. round table)
Ground rules for SHARING
Welcome feedback
Freedom not to share
CONFIDENTIALITY
ATTENTIVE LISTENING

CONDITIONS FOR HOLDING ENVIRONMENT

OPTIMUM LEVEL OF ANXIETY

TRUST

AVAILABILITY

COMPETENT RECEIVING (not too dependent)

BOUNDARIES

POSITIVE EXPERIENCES and OUTCOMES

Change Agent and PRESENCE

BE HONORABLE

INTEGRITY

STATE A POSITION

SPEAK THE UNSPEAKABLE

BRAVE

BE EFFECTIVE

FACILITATION

TEACH

MODEL

AWARENESS

BE CURIOUS

SHOW GENUINE INTEREST

LEARNING POSTURE

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“This impressive book on change is an essential read for any professional manager who is serious about getting to
grips with the important issues of making change happen.”
Dr Jeff Watkins, former MSc Course Director, University of Bristol
“There has long been a need for a readable, practical but theoretically underpinned book on change which
recognizes a multiplicity of perspectives. I thoroughly recommend it.”
Professor Colin Carnall, Associate Dean, Executive Programme, Warwick Business School,
University of Warwick
“I’ll definitely be placing copies on a couple of desks at White City…”
Nicky Campbell, Presenter, Radio Five Live and BBC1’s Watchdog
“This book is a great resource for managers thrown into the midst of change who need to gain understanding of
what happens when you try to make significant changes in a business, and how best to manage people through it.”
Andy Newell, former Organizational Effectiveness Director, Allied Domecq plc
“I commend it highly. It has a good coverage of relevant theoretical work while at the same time giving plenty of
practical examples. It is written in an accessible style that engages the reader and it is full of useful ideas without
being overly prescriptive or formulaic.”
Philip Sadler, author and Vice President of Ashridge Business School
Making Sense of Change Management is the classic text in the field of change management. It is aimed at
anyone who wants to understand why change happens, and what needs to be done to make change a
welcome rather than a dreaded concept. However, this book is not a “one size fits all” simplistic panacea to
all change, whatever the circumstances. Instead, it offers considered insights into the many frameworks,
models and ways of approaching change and helps the reader to apply the right approach to each unique
situation. Topics include:
Written for academics and professionals alike, Making Sense of Change Management identifies and offers
explanations of all current models of change, as well as practical guidelines and examples showing the
reader why change can go wrong – and how to get it right.
Esther Cameron and Mike Green help organizations and executives to manage and lead change. They work
in both the private and public sectors and use a variety of coaching, consultancy and workshop interventions
to support organizational development. Mike tutors in Leadership and Change at Henley Management
College and Esther lectured on change management for the University of Bristol for ten years. Both are
established authors in the area of change and leadership and are co-authors of Making Sense of Leadership
(also published by Kogan Page).
Kogan Page
120 Pentonville Road
London N1 9JN
United Kingdom
www.koganpage.com
Kogan Page US
525 South 4th Street, #241
Philadelphia PA 19147
USA
I S B N 978-0-7494-5310-7
9 7 8 0 7 4 9 4 5 3 1 0 7
£27.50
US $45.00
Business and management
A complete guide to the models, tools
& techniques of organizational change 2nd edition
Esther Cameron & Mike Green
MAKING
SENSE OF
CHANGE
MANAGEMENT
M
A
K
IN
G
S
E
N
S
E
O
F
C
H
A
N
G
E
M
A
N
A
G
E
M
E
N
T
C
am
ero
n
&
G
reen
2nd
edition
ISBN: 978-0-7494-5310-7
• individual change;
• team change;
• organizational change;
• leading change;
• structural change;
• mergers and acquisitions;
• cultural change;
• IT-based process change;
• complex change;
• how best to implement change.
making sense change mana_aw:Layout 1 4/3/09 12:11 Page 1

i
Praise for the first edition of Making Sense of Change Management
‘I commend it highly. It has a good coverage of relevant theoretical work while at
the same time giving plenty of practical examples. It is written in an accessible
style that engages the reader and it is full of useful ideas without being overly
prescriptive or formulaic.’
Philip Sadler, author of a number of acclaimed business titles and former
chief executive of Ashridge Business School
‘I really enjoyed this book. I like the straightforward approach, the inclusion of the
author’s opinion and the insight provided by the case studies. This book will be
very useful for those business managers in my organization who need to prepare
themselves for tackling major organizational change.’
Andy Houghton, former Head of Organization Development, Retail
Direct, Royal Bank of Scotland Group
‘There has long been a need for a readable, practical but theoretically under-pinned
book on Change which recognized a multiplicity of perspectives. By combining the
behavioural, humanistic, organizational and cognitive perspectives and by helping
the reader make sense of what each perspective brings to understanding Change,
this book should help students and practitioners. By linking in work on personality
tests such as MBTI™ the book breaks new ground from a practitioner point of view
not least because these tests are widely used in practice. I thoroughly recommend it.’
Professor Colin Carnall, Associate Dean, Executive Programme, Warwick
Business School, University of Warwick
‘If you’re interested in successfully managing and leading change, then read this
book! It not only covers change from both the individual and organizational
perspective, but also increases the number of options available to you.’
Judi Billing, Director of IDeA Leadership Academy, Improvement and
Development Agency
‘Change is a huge thing wherever you work. The key is to make change happen,
and make it happen well – with everyone on side, and everyone happy. This book
provides an extremely stimulating and accessible guide to doing just that. There
are a few people at the Beeb who could do with this. I’ll definitely be placing copies
on a couple of desks at White City.’
Nicky Campbell, Presenter Radio Five Live and BBC1’s Watchdog

‘This book is a great resource for managers thrown into the midst of change, who
need to gain understanding of what happens when you try to make significant
changes in a business, and how best to manage people through it. The authors have
tackled a complex topic in a lively and engaging way, leading readers through the
maze of theory available and offering just the right amount of practical advice.’
Andy Newall, former Organizational Effectiveness Director, Allied
Domecq plc
‘This impressive book on change is an essential read for any professional
manager who is serious about getting to grips with the important issues of
making change happen.’
Dr Jeff Watkins, former MSc Course Director, Management Research
Centre, University of Bristol
‘This practical handbook, combining contemporary management theory with very
practical suggestions, is an indispensable tool for any manager involved in change
processes. And aren’t we all…’
Adriaan Vollebergh, Director, Corus Metal Services Europe
‘This is a book which lives up to its title. By combining a guide to the ideas of key
thinkers on change and useful tips for making change happen, it really does
provide a toolkit to help us to make sense of change. It is useful to see a focus on
the individual, team and organizational levels, and in particular, on the role of the
leader in the change process. It is written in a way that makes the book interesting
to read both at length as well as to dip into.’
Richard McBain, Director of Studies Distance Learning MBA, Henley
Management College
ii

iii
MAKING
SENSE OF
CHANGE
MANAGEMENT

iv
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

A complete guide to the models, tools
& techniques of organizational change
Esther Cameron & Mike Green
MAKING
SENSE OF
CHANGE
MANAGEMENT
London and Philadelphia
2nd edition
v

vi
Publisher ’s note
Every possible effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this book
is accurate at the time of going to press, and the publishers and authors cannot accept
responsibility for any errors or omissions, however caused. No responsibility for loss or
damage occasioned to any person acting, or refraining from action, as a result of the mate-
rial in this publication can be accepted by the editor, the publisher or any of the authors.
First published in Great Britain and the United States in 2004 by Kogan Page Limited
Reprinted 2004 (twice), 2005, 2006, 2007 (three times)
Second edition 2009
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or
review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication
may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior
permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accor-
dance with the terms and licences issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned addresses:
120 Pentonville Road 525 South 4th Street, #241
London N1 9JN Philadelphia PA 19147
United Kingdom USA
www.koganpage.com
© Esther Cameron and Mike Green, 2004, 2009
The right of Esther Cameron and Mike Green to be identified as the authors of this work
has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
ISBN 978 0 7494 5310 7
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cameron, Esther.
Making sense of change management : a complete guide to the models, tools and
techniques of organizational change / Esther Cameron and Mike Green. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7494-5310-7
1. Organizational change–Management. 2. Teams in the workplace–Management. 3.
Reengineering (Management) 4. Information technology–Management. I. Green,
Mike, 1959- II. Title.
HD58.8.C317 2008
658.4�06–dc22
2008034689
Typeset by Saxon Graphics Ltd, Derby
Printed and bound in India by Replika Press Pvt Ltd

vii
Contents
Acknowledgements x
Introduction 1
Who this book is aimed at 2; The basic content of the book 3;
Why explore different approaches to change? 3; Overview of
structure 7; Message to readers 8
PART ONE: THE UNDERPINNING THEORY 9
1 Individual change 12
Introduction 12; Learning and the process of change 14;
The behavioural approach to change 19; The cognitive
approach to change 25; The psychodynamic approach to
change 32; The humanistic psychology approach to
change 40; Personality and change 50; Managing change in
self and others 53; Summary and conclusions 60

2 Team change 62
Introduction 62; What is a group and when is it a team? 63;
Why we need teams 65; The types of organizational teams 66;
How to improve team effectiveness 74; What team change
looks like 78; The leadership issues in team change 82;
How individuals affect team dynamics 86; How well teams
initiate and adapt to organizational change 91; Summary and
conclusions 95
3 Organizational change 97
How organizations really work 98; Models of and approaches
to organizational change 109; Summary and conclusions 134
4 Leading change 138
Introduction 138; Visionary leadership 142; Roles that leaders
play 153; Leadership styles and skills 159; Different leadership
for different phases of change 166; The importance of
self-knowledge and inner resources 173; Summary and
conclusions 178
PART TWO: THE APPLICATIONS 181
Strategic change process 182; Overview of structure 182
5 Restructuring 187
Reasons for restructuring 189; The restructuring process 190;
Restructuring from an individual change perspective: the
special case of redundancy 209; Enabling teams to address
organizational change 214; Conclusion 221
6 Mergers and acquisitions 222
The purpose of merger and acquisition activity 223; Lessons
from research into successful and unsuccessful mergers and
acquisitions 228; Applying the change theory: guidelines for
leaders 242; Summary 253
Contents
viii

7 Cultural change 255
Guidelines for achieving successful cultural change 259; Case
study one: aligning the organization 262; Case study two:
rebranding the organization 268; Case study three: creating
an employer brand 275
8 IT-based process change 281
Strategy and IT 284; The role of IT management 287;
The need for IT change managers 292; Achieving process
change 296; Changing the information culture 303;
New rules for a new age 305; Summary and conclusions 306
PART THREE: EMERGING INQUIRIES 309
9 Complex change 310
Introduction 310; When is change complex? 311;
Understanding how complexity science applies to
organizational change 312; Tools that support complex
change 321; The role of leaders in complex change 327;
Summary and conclusions 330
10 The right way to manage change? 331
Introduction 331; What the research says 332;
Different approaches to getting ready for change 338;
Leading change 343; How do you know whether change is
working? 345; Summary and conclusions 349
Conclusion 351
The importance of peripheral vision 351; Finding the space to
reflect 352; How to get in touch with the authors of this
book 353
References 354
Index 363
Contents
ix

Acknowledgements
We want to start by acknowledging the many people in organizations
with whom we have worked over the years. You are all in here in some
shape or form! We have worked with many generous, courageous and
inspiring managers of change who we thank for the privilege of working
alongside them to make real change happen. Without these experiences
the book would be a dry catalogue of theory, devoid of life and character.
Then of course there are our colleagues who challenge and support us
every day as we reflect on our work, and make decisions about what to
do next. Particular thanks go from Mike to Andy Holder, Mhairi Cameron,
Philip Darley and Tim Hockridge, who probably do not know how much
they are appreciated, and to colleagues and MBA students at Henley
Management College for a never-ending supply of ideas and challenges.
Esther wants to specially acknowledge Anne-Marie Saunders and Alex
Clark for their wisdom, humour and friendship, and their generosity in
sharing their expertise. Many of their ideas and thoughts are embedded
in this book. Also, thanks go to Esther ’s learning set who have been a
source of strength throughout the last few years, and who really boosted
the leadership chapter in particular. Thanks too to Bill Critchley for his
ideas on linking metaphor and change, which form the bedrock of the
organizational change chapter.
x

Really special thanks go to Ailsa Cameron for her wonderful pictures,
which soften the pages so beautifully.
We also want to thank from the bottom of our hearts the hard-working
reviewers who squeezed the time out of their busy agendas to read draft
versions of these chapters. Special thanks go to Louise Overy, Steve
Summers, Duncan Cameron, Mervyn Smallwood, Peter Hyson and
Richard Lacey for their timely and thoughtful suggestions throughout the
iterative process of writing the book.
Our families have helped too by being very patient and supportive. So
love and thanks to Jane, Lewin, Oliver and Brigit. Love, and thanks too to
Duncan, Ailsa, Ewan and Katka.
We also want to thank each other. We have learnt a lot from this rich
and sometimes rocky process of writing a book together. We do not
always see things the same way, and we do not work from an identical set
of assumptions about change, so the book is the culmination of much
healthy airing of views. Let’s hope we are still writing, talking and
enjoying each other ’s company many years from now.
Note: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator™ and MBTI™ are registered trade-
marks of Consulting Psychologists Press. Anyone interested in knowing
more about Myers-Briggs should contact Consulting Psychologists Press
in the US (800-624-1765) and OPP in the UK (08708 728 727).
Acknowledgements
xi

THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
xii

Introduction
I balance on a wishing well that all men call the world.
We are so small between the stars, so large against the sky,
and lost amongst the subway crowd I try and catch your eye.
L Cohen
This book is about making sense of
change management. The world we live
in continues to change at an intense
rate. Not a day goes by, it seems,
without another important discovery or
boundary-pushing invention in the
scientific fields. The economics of glob-
alization seems to dominate much of
our political and corporate thinking,
while the shadow side of globalization –
refugees, exploitation, terrorism and the
like – develops at an equally alarming pace.
The rate of change and discovery outpaces our individual ability to
keep up with it. The organizations we work in or rely on to meet our
1

needs and wants are also changing dramatically, in terms of their strate-
gies, their structures, their systems, their boundaries and of course their
expectations of their staff and their managers.
WHO THIS BOOK IS AIMED AT
Making Sense of Change Management is aimed at anyone who wants to
begin to understand why change happens, how change happens and
what needs to be done to make change a more welcoming concept. In
particular we hope that leaders and managers in organizations might
appreciate a book that does not give them the one and only panacea, but
offers insights into different frameworks and ways of approaching
change at an individual, team and organizational level.
We are mindful of the tremendous pressures and priorities of practising
managers – in both the private and the public sector – and Making Sense
of Change Management is our attempt at making their lives that little bit
easier. It is also our attempt at convincing them that addressing the issues
that cause change to be so poorly managed in organizations will lead not
only to more satisfying experiences for them, but to more fulfilling lives
for their staff.
Framework: an essential supporting structure;
Model: a simplified description of a system;
Tool: a thing used in an occupation or pursuit;
Technique: a means of achieving one’s purpose.
Concise Oxford Dictionary
Students of learning – be they MBA or MSc programme members, or indi-
viduals who just want to do things better – will hopefully find some
models, tools and techniques which bridge the gap between the purely
academic and the more pragmatic aspects of management theory and
practice. The intention is to help them to make sense of the changes that
they will undergo, initiate and implement.
Making sense of change management
2

THE BASIC CONTENT OF THE BOOK
We focus our attention on individual, team and organizational change
with good reason. Many readers will be grappling with large-scale
change at some point, which might be departmental, divisional or whole
organizational change. Whatever the level or degree of organizational
change, the people on the receiving end are individual human beings. It
is they who will ultimately cause the change to be a success or a failure.
Without looking at the implications of change on individuals we can
never really hope to manage large-scale change effectively.
In addition, one of the themes of organizational life over recent years
has been the ascendancy of the team. Much of today ’s work is organized
through teams and requires team collaboration and team working for it to
succeed. Very little has been written about the role of teams in organiza-
tional change, and we have attempted to offer some fresh ideas mixed
with some familiar ones.
A thread running through the book is the crucial role of leadership. If
management is all about delivering on current needs, then leadership is all
about inventing the future. There is a specific chapter on leadership, but
you will find the importance of effective leadership arising throughout.
In some respects the chapters on individual, team and organizational
change, together with the chapter on leadership of change are free-
standing and self-contained. However, we have also included application
chapters where we have chosen a number of types of change, some of
which, no doubt, will be familiar to you. These chapters aim to provide
guidelines, case studies and learning points for those facing specific orga-
nizational challenges. Here the individual, team and organizational
aspects of the changes are integrated into a coherent whole.
For this new edition we have added two new chapters, one on managing
complex change and one on whether there’s a single ‘right’ way of
managing change.
WHY EXPLORE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CHANGE?
Managers in today ’s organizations face some bewildering challenges.
Paul Evans (2000) says that 21st century leadership of change issues is not
simple; he sees modern leadership as a balancing act. He draws our atten-
tion to the need for leaders to accept the challenge of navigating between
Introduction
3

opposites. Leaders have to balance a track record of success with the
ability to admit mistakes and meet failure well. They also have to balance
short term and long term goals, be both visionary and pragmatic, pay
attention to global and local issues and encourage individual account-
ability at the same time as enabling team work.
It is useful to note that while some pundits encourage leaders to lead
rather than manage, Paul Evans is emphasizing the need for leaders to
pay attention to both management and leadership. See the box for a list
of paradoxes that managers at Lego are asked to manage.
THE 11 PARADOXES OF LEADERSHIP THAT HANG
ON THE WALL OF EVERY LEGO MANAGER
• To be able to build a close relationship with one’s staff, and to keep a
suitable distance.
• To be able to lead, and to hold oneself in the background.
• To trust one’s staff, and to keep an eye on what is happening.
• To be tolerant, and to know how you want things to function.
• To keep the goals of one’s department in mind, and at the same time
to be loyal to the whole firm.
• To do a good job of planning your own time, and to be flexible with
your schedule.
• To freely express your view, and to be diplomatic.
• To be a visionary, and to keep one’s feet on the ground.
• To try to win consensus, and to be able to cut through.
• To be dynamic, and to be reflective.
• To be sure of yourself, and to be humble.
Source: Evans (2000)
We believe that anyone interested in the successful management of
change needs to develop the ability to handle such paradoxes.
Throughout this book we offer a range of ideas and views, some of which
are contradictory. We would urge you to try to create a space within your-
self for considering a variety of perspectives. Allow your own ideas and
insights to emerge, rather than looking for ideas that you agree with, and
Making sense of change management
4

discarding those you do not care for. It is highly probable that there is
some merit in everything you read in this book!
With so many choices and so many dynamic tensions in leadership,
how does a manager learn to navigate his or her way through the maze?
We have developed a straightforward model of leadership that acts as a
strong reminder to managers that they need to balance three key
dimensions. See Figure 0.1.
Managers usually learn to focus on outcomes and tangible results very
early on in their careers. This book is a reminder that although outcomes
are extremely important, the leader must also pay attention to underlying
emotions, and to the world of power and influence, in order to sustain
change and achieve continued success in the long term. Leaders of
change need to balance their efforts across all three dimensions of an
organizational change:
Introduction
5
Outcomes
Developing and delivering
business outcomes
Emotions
Enabling people &
culture to adapt
Interests
Mobilizing influence,
authority and power
Organizational
context
Personal
leadership
Figure 0.1 Three dimensions of leadership
Source: developed by Mike Green, Andy Holder and Mhairi Cameron

• outcomes: developing and delivering clear outcomes;
• interests: mobilizing influence, authority and power;
• emotions: enabling people and culture to adapt.
Leaders are at the centre of all three. They shape, direct and juggle them.
One dimension may seem central at any time: for example, developing a
strategy. However, leadership is about ensuring that the other dimensions
are also kept in view. The three balls must always be juggled successfully.
In our experience, if you as leader or manager of change are unaware
of what is happening (or not happening) in each of the three dimensions
then you will have ‘taken your eye off the ball’. Your chances of
progressing in an effective way are diminished.
The early chapters of this book give the reader some underpinning
theory and examples to illustrate how people initiate change and react to
change at an individual level, when in teams, or when viewed as part of
a whole organization. This theory will help managers to understand what
is going on, how to deal with it and how to lead it with the help of others.
Making sense of change management
6
In
tr
od
u
ct
io
n
C
h
ap
te
r
1
C
h
ap
te
r
2
C
h
ap
te
r
3
C
h
ap
te
r
4
In
tr
od
u
ct
io
n
P
ar
t
2
C
h
ap
te
r
5
C
h
ap
te
r
6
C
h
ap
te
r
7
C
h
ap
te
r
8
In
tr
od
u
ct
io
n
P
ar
t
3
C
h
ap
te
r
9
C
h
ap
te
r
10
Type of change In
d
iv
id
u
al
Te
am
O
rg
an
iz
at
io
n
al
L
ea
d
in
g
ch
an
ge
R
es
tr
u
ct
u
ri
n
g
M
&
A
C
u
lt
u
re
IT
p
ro
ce
ss
C
om
p
le
x
ch
an
ge
R
ig
h
t
w
ay
Individual xxx x x xx x x x x
Team xxx x x xx x x x x
Organizational x x x xxx x x xx xx xx xx xx xx
Leading change x x x x xxx xx x x x xx
Table 0.1 Where to read about individual, team,
organizational change and leading change

The later chapters take real change situations and give specific tips
and guidelines on how to tackle these successfully from a leadership
point of view.
OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURE
We have structured the book principally in three parts.
Part One, ‘The underpinning theory’, comprises four chapters and
aims to set out a wide range of ideas and approaches to managing
change. Chapter 1 draws together the key theories of how individuals go
through change. Chapter 2 compares different types of team, and exam-
ines the process of team development and also the way in which different
types of team contribute to the organizational change process. Chapter 3
looks at a wide range of approaches to organizational change, using orga-
nizational metaphor to show how these are interconnected and related.
Chapter 4 examines leadership of change, the role of visionary leadership,
the roles that leaders play in the change process and the competencies
that a leader needs to become a successful leader of change.
These chapters enable the reader to develop a broader understanding
of the theoretical aspects of individual, team and organizational change,
and to learn more about a variety of perspectives on how best to be a
leader of change. This lays firm foundations for anyone wanting to learn
about new approaches to managing change with a view to becoming
more skilled in this area.
Part Two, ‘The applications’, focuses on specific change scenarios with a
view to giving guidelines, hints and tips to those involved in these different
types of change process. These chapters are illustrated with case studies and
make reference to the models and methods discussed in Part One. Chapter
5 looks at organizational restructuring, why it goes wrong, and how to get
it right. Chapter 6 tackles mergers and acquisitions by categorizing the
different types of activity and examining the learning points resulting from
research into this area. Chapter 7 examines cultural change by describing
some diverse case studies and extracting the learning points, and Chapter 8
attempts to shed some light on IT-based process change, why it so often
goes awry and what organizations can do to improve on this.
Part Three is a new section that we have included for the second edition.
One of the clear things that has emerged for us in helping others lead and
Introduction
7

manage change is the tension between overly planning and controlling
change on the one hand, and the fact that change is often not simple
enough to plan or control on the other. Chapter 9 looks at the whole area
of complexity science and how it can inform your approach when
managing complex change. Chapter 10 looks at how and why many
change efforts fail to deliver all that they set out to do. In this chapter we
ask the question ‘Is there one right way of managing change?’ and (without
giving anything away right now) if not, explores how we can approach
change at least with some confidence in managing it successfully.
Please do not read this book from beginning to end in one sitting. It is
too much to take in. We recommend that if you prefer a purely pragmatic
approach you should start by reading Part Two. You will find concrete
examples and helpful guidelines. After that, you might like to go back into
the theory in Part One to understand the choices available to you as a
leader of change.
Likewise, if you are more interested in understanding the theoretical
underpinning of change, then read Part One first. You will find a range of
approaches together with their associated theories of change. After that,
you might like to read Part Two to find out how the theory can be applied
in real situations.
MESSAGE TO READERS
We wish you well in all your endeavours to initiate, adapt to and survive
change. We hope the book provides you with some useful ideas and
insights, and we look forward to hearing about your models, approaches
and experiences, and to your thoughts on the glaring gaps in this book.
We are sure we have left lots of important things out!
Do e-mail us with your comments and ideas, or visit us at:
Esther –
Website: www.cameronchange.co.uk
E-mail: esther@cameronchange.co.uk
Mike –
Website: www.transitionalspace.co.uk
E-mail: mike@transitionalspace.co.uk
Making sense of change management
8

Part One
The underpinning
theory
All appears to change when we change.
Henri Amiel
Individual change is at the heart of everything that is achieved in organiza-
tions. Once individuals have the motivation to do something different, the
whole world can begin to change. The conspiracy laws in the UK recognize
this capacity for big change to start small. In some legal cases, the merest
nod or a wink between two people seems to be considered adequate
evidence to indicate a conspiratorial act. In some respects this type of law
indicates the incredible power that individuals have within them to chal-
lenge existing power strongholds and alter the way things are done.
However, individuals are to some extent governed by the norms of the
groups they belong to, and groups are bound together in a whole system
of groups of people that interconnect in various habitual ways. So the
story is not always that simple. Individuals, teams and organizations all
play a part in the process of change, and leaders have a particularly
onerous responsibility: that is, making all this happen.
9

We divided this book into three parts so that readers could have the
option either to start their journey through this book by first reading
about the theory of change, or to begin by reading about the practical
applications. The third part looks at managing complex change and
whether there is one right way of managing change. We understand that
people have different preferences. However, we do think that a thorough
grounding in the theory is useful to help each person to untangle and
articulate his or her own assumptions about how organizations work, and
how change occurs. Do you for instance think that organizations can be
changed by those in leadership positions to reach a predetermined end
state, or do you think that people in organizations need to be collectively
aware of the need for change before they can begin to adapt?
Assumptions can be dangerous things when not explored, as they can
restrict your thinking and narrow down your options.
Part One comprises four chapters. These have been chosen to represent
four useful perspectives on change: individual change, team change,
organizational change and leading change. Chapter 1 draws together the
four key approaches to understanding individual change. These are the
behavioural, cognitive, psychodynamic and humanistic psychology
approaches. This chapter also looks at the connection between person-
ality and change, and how to enable change in others when you are
acting in a managerial role.
Chapter 2 identifies the main elements of team and group theory that
we believe are useful to understand when managing change. This
chapter compares different types of team, looks at the area of team effec-
tiveness, and examines the process of team development. The composi-
tion of the team and the effect this has on team performance are also
examined, as well as the way in which different types of team contribute
to the organizational change process.
Chapter 3 looks at a wide range of approaches to organizational
change, using organizational metaphor to show how these are intercon-
nected and related. Familiar and unfamiliar models of the change process
are described and categorized by metaphor to enable the underpinning
assumptions to be examined, and we give our views on how useful these
various models are to leaders of change.
Chapter 4 examines the leadership of change. We start by looking at the
variety of leadership roles that arise from using different assumptions
about how organizations work. The need for visionary leadership, the
The underpinning theory
10

characteristics of successful leaders and some thoughts on the need for a
different sort of leadership in the 21st century are all aired. The chapter
also examines how communities of leaders can work together to make
change happen, and what styles and skills are required of a leader,
including the need for emotional competencies. The phases of a change
process are looked at in order to illuminate the need for different leader-
ship actions and attention during the different phases of change, and the
importance of self-knowledge and self-awareness is highlighted.
The underpinning theory
11

1
Individual change
INTRODUCTION
This chapter draws together the key theories of how individuals go
through change, using various models to explore this phenomenon. The
aims of this chapter are to give managers and others experiencing or
implementing change an understanding of the change process and how
it impacts individuals, and strategies to use when helping people through
change to ensure results are achieved.
This chapter covers the following topics, each of which takes a different
perspective on individual change:
• Learning and the process of change – in what ways can models of
learning help us understand individual change?
• The behavioural approach to change – how can we change people’s
behaviour?
• The cognitive approach to change – how change can be made attrac-
tive to people and how people can achieve the results that they want.
• The psychodynamic approach to change – what’s actually going on
for people.
12

• The humanistic psychology approach to change – how can people
maximize the benefits of change?
• Personality and change – how do we differ in our responses to change?
• Managing change in self and others – if we can understand people’s
internal experience and we know what changes need to happen,
what is the best way to effect change?
As the box points out, a key point for managers of change is to under-
stand the distinction between the changes being managed in the external
world and the concurrent psychological transitions that are experienced
internally by people (including managers themselves).
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
It was the ancient Greek philosopher, Heraclitus, who maintained that you
never step into the same river twice. Of course most people interpret that
statement as indicating that the river – that is, the external world – never
stays the same, is always changing: constant flux, in Heraclitus’s words
again. However, there is another way of interpreting what he said.
Perhaps the ‘you’ who steps into the river today is not the same ‘you’ who
will step into the river tomorrow. This interpretation – which might open
up a whole can of existential and philosophical worms – is much more to
do with the inner world of experience than with the external world of facts
and figures.
Immediately therefore we have two ways of looking at and responding
to change: the changes that happen in the outside world and those
changes that take place in the internal world. Often though, it is the
internal reaction to external change that proves the most fruitful area of
discovery, and it is often in this area that we find the reasons external
changes succeed or fail.
In order to demonstrate this, we will draw on four approaches to change.
These are the behavioural, the cognitive, the psychodynamic and the
humanistic psychological approaches, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Individual change
13

The underpinning theory
14
We will also look at Edgar Schein’s analysis of the need to reduce the
anxiety surrounding the change by creating psychological safety. This is
further illuminated by discussion of the various psychodynamics that
come into play when individuals are faced with change, loss and renewal.
Finally we will explore tools and techniques that can be used to make
the transition somewhat smoother and somewhat quicker. This will
include a summary of how the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator™, which is
used to develop personal and interpersonal awareness, can illuminate the
managerial challenges at each stage of the individual change process. But
first we will begin our exploration by looking at how individuals learn.
LEARNING AND THE PROCESS OF CHANGE
Buchanan and Huczynski (1985) define learning as ‘the process of
acquiring knowledge through experience which leads to a change in
behaviour ’. Learning is not just an acquisition of knowledge, but the
application of it through doing something different in the world.
Many of the change scenarios that you find yourself in require you to
learn something new, or to adjust to a new way of operating, or to unlearn
something. Obviously this is not always the case – a company takes over
your company but retains the brand name, the management team and it
is ‘business as usual’ – but often in the smallest of changes you need to
learn something new: your new boss’s likes and dislikes, for example.
A useful way of beginning to understand what happens when we go
through change is to take a look at what happens when we first start to
Behavioural
Changing behaviours
Cognitive
Achieving results
Psychodynamic
The inner world of change
Humanistic psychology
Maximizing potential
Figure 1.1 Four approaches to individual change

learn something new. Let us take an example of driving your new car for the
first time. For many people the joy of a new car is tempered by the nervous-
ness of driving it for the first time. Getting into the driving seat of your old
car is an automatic response, as is doing the normal checks, turning the key
and driving off. However, with a new car all the buttons and control panels
might be in different positions. One can go through the process of locating
them either through trial and error, or perhaps religiously reading through
the driver ’s manual first. But that is only the beginning, because you know
that when you are actually driving any manner of things might occur that
will require an instantaneous response: sounding the horn, flashing your
lights, putting the hazard lights on or activating the windscreen wipers.
All these things you would have done automatically but now you need
to think about them. Thinking not only requires time, it also requires a
‘psychological space’ which it is not easy to create when driving along at
your normal speed. Added to this is the nervousness you may have about
it being a brand new car and therefore needing that little bit more atten-
tion so as to avoid any scrapes to the bodywork.
As you go through this process, an external assessment of your perfor-
mance would no doubt confirm a reduction in your efficiency and effec-
tiveness for a period of time. And if one were to map your internal state
your confidence levels would most likely dip as well. Obviously this
anxiety falls off over time. This is based on your capacity to assimilate new
information, the frequency and regularity with which you have changed
cars, and how often you drive.
Individual change
15
Time
P
e
rf
o
rm
a
n
ce
Figure 1.2 The learning dip

Conscious and unconscious competence and incompetence
Another way of looking at what happens when you learn something new
is to view it from a Gestalt perspective. The Gestalt psychologists suggested
that people have a worldview that entails some things being in the fore-
ground and other things being in the background of their consciousness.
To illustrate this, the room where I am writing this looks out on to a
gravel path which leads into a cottage garden sparkling with the sun
shining on the frost-covered shrubs. Before I chose to look up, the garden
was tucked back into the recesses of my consciousness. (I doubt whether
it was even in yours.) By focusing attention on it I brought it into the fore-
ground of my consciousness. Likewise all the colours in the garden are of
equal note, until someone mentions white and I immediately start to
notice the snowdrops, the white narcissi and the white pansies. They
have come into my foreground.
Now in those examples it does not really matter what is fully conscious or
not. However in the example of driving a new car for the first time some-
thing else is happening. Assuming that I am an experienced driver, many of
the aspects of driving, for me, are unconscious. All of these aspects I hope-
fully carry out competently. So perhaps I can drive for many miles on a
motorway, safe in the knowledge that a lot of the activities I am performing
I am actually doing unconsciously. We might say I am unconsciously compe-
tent. However, as soon as I am in the new situation of an unfamiliar car I
realize that many of the things I took for granted I cannot now do as well as
before. I have become conscious of my incompetence. Through some trial
and error and some practice and some experience I manage – quite
consciously – to become competent again. But it has required focus and
attention. All these tasks have been in the forefront of my world and my
consciousness. It will only be after a further period of time that they recede
to the background and I become unconsciously competent again (Figure 1.3).
Of course there is another cycle: not the one of starting at unconscious
competence, but one of starting at unconscious incompetence! This is
where you do not know what you do not know, and the only way of real-
izing is by making a mistake (and reflecting upon it), or when someone
kind enough and brave enough tells you. From self-reflection or from
others’ feedback your unconscious incompetence becomes conscious, and
you are able to begin the cycle of learning.
The underpinning theory
16

Individual change
17
Kolb’s learning cycle
David Kolb (1984) developed a model of experiential learning, which
unpacked how learning occurs, and what stages a typical individual goes
through in order to learn. It shows that we learn through a process of
doing and thinking. (See Figure 1.4.)
Following on from the earlier definition of learning as ‘the process of
acquiring knowledge through experience which leads to a change in
Concrete
experience
Activist
Reflective
observation
Reflector
Theoretical
concepts
Theorist
Practical
experimentation
Pragmatist
Figure 1.4 Kolb’s learning cycle
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behaviour ’, Kolb saw this as a cycle through which the individual has a
concrete experience. The individual actually does something, reflects
upon his or her specific experience, makes some sense of the experience
by drawing some general conclusions, and plans to do things differently
in the future. Kolb would argue that true learning could not take place
without someone going through all stages of the cycle.
In addition, research by Kolb suggested that different individuals have
different sets of preferences or styles in the way they learn. Some of us are
quite activist in our approach to learning. We
want to experience what it is that we need to
learn. We want to dive into the swimming pool
and see what happens (immerse ourselves in the
task). Some of us would like to think about it
first! We like to reflect, perhaps on others’ experi-
ence before we take action. The theorists might
like to see how the act of swimming relates to
other forms of sporting activity, or investigate
how other mammals take the plunge. The prag-
matists amongst us have a desire to relate what is
happening to their own circumstances. They are interested in how the act
of swimming will help them to achieve their goals.
Not only do we all have a learning preference but also the theory
suggests that we can get stuck within our preference.
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
If you were writing a book on change and wanted to maximize the
learning for all of your readers perhaps you would need to:
• encourage experimentation (activist);
• ensure there were ample ways of engendering reflection through
questioning (reflector);
• ensure the various models were well researched (theorist);
• illustrate your ideas with case studies and show the relevance of what
you are saying by giving useful tools, techniques and applications
(pragmatist).
The underpinning theory
18

So activists may go from one experience to the next one, not thinking to
review how the last one went or planning what they would do differ-
ently. The reflector may spend inordinate amounts of time conducting
project and performance reviews, but not necessarily embedding any
learning into the next project. Theorists can spend a lot of time making
connections and seeing the bigger picture by putting the current situation
into a wider context, but they may not actually get around to doing
anything. Pragmatists may be so intent on ensuring that it is relevant to
their job that they can easily dismiss something that does not at first
appear that useful.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 1.1 A new piece of software arrives in the office or in your home. How
do you go about learning about it?
• Do you install it and start trying it out? (Activist)
• Do you watch as others show you how to use it? (Reflector)
• Do you learn about the background to it and the similarities
with other programmes? (Theorist)
• Do you not bother experimenting until you find a clear purpose
for it? (Pragmatist)
THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO CHANGE
The behavioural approach to change, as the name implies, very much
focuses on how one individual can change another individual’s
behaviour using reward and punishment, to achieve intended results. If
the intended results are not being achieved then an analysis of the indi-
vidual’s behaviour will lead to an understanding of what is contributing
to success and what is contributing to non-achievement. In order to elicit
the preferred behaviour the individual must be encouraged to behave
that way, and discouraged from behaving any other way. This approach
has its advantages and disadvantages.
For example, an organization is undergoing a planned programme of
culture change, moving from being an inwardly focused bureaucratic
organization to a flatter and more responsive customer oriented organi-
zation. Customer facing and back office staff will all need to change the
Individual change
19

way they behave towards customers and
towards each other to achieve this
change. A behavioural approach to
change will focus on changing the
behaviour of staff and managers. The
objective will be behaviour change, and
there will not necessarily be any atten-
tion given to improving processes,
improving relationships or increasing
involvement in goal setting. There will
be no interest taken in how individuals
specifically experience that change.
This whole field is underpinned by the work of a number of practi-
tioners. The names of Pavlov and Skinner are perhaps the most famous.
Ivan Pavlov noticed while researching the digestive system of dogs that
when his dogs were connected to his experimental apparatus and offered
food they began to salivate. He also observed that, over time, the dogs
started to salivate when the researcher opened the door to bring in the
food. The dogs had learnt that there was a link between the door opening
and being fed. This is now referred to as classical conditioning.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Unconditioned stimulus (food) leads to an unconditioned response
(salivation).
If neutral stimulus (door opening) and unconditioned stimulus (food)
are associated, neutral stimulus (now a conditioned stimulus) leads to
unconditioned response (now a conditioned response).
Pavlov (1928)
Further experimental research led others to realize that cats could learn how
to escape from a box through positive effects (rewards) and negative effects
(punishments). Skinner (1953) extended this research into operant condi-
tioning, looking at the effects of behaviours, not just at the behaviours them-
selves. His experiments with rats led him to observe that they soon learnt
that an accidental operation of a lever led to there being food provided. The
reward of the food then led to the rats repeating the behaviour.
The underpinning theory
20

Using the notion of rewards and punishments, four possible situations
arise when you want to encourage a specific behaviour, as demonstrated
in Table 1.1.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 1.2 What rewards and what punishments operate in your organization?
How effective are they in bringing about change?
So in what ways may behaviourism help us with individuals going
through change? In any project of planned behaviour change a number
of steps will be required:
• Step 1: The identification of the behaviours that impact performance.
• Step 2: The measurement of those behaviours. How much are these
behaviours currently in use?
• Step 3: A functional analysis of the behaviours – that is, the identifica-
tion of the component parts that make up each behaviour.
• Step 4: The generation of a strategy of intervention – what rewards
and punishments should be linked to the behaviours that impact
performance.
• Step 5: An evaluation of the effectiveness of the intervention strategy.
Individual change
21
Table 1.1 Rewards and punishments
Actions Positive Negative
Addition Positive reinforcement Punishment
Pleasurable and increases Unpleasant (for example, an
probability of repeat ‘good’ electric shock) leading to
behaviour decrease in repeat ‘bad’
behaviour
Subtraction Extinction Negative reinforcement
Removal of an unpleasant Removal of a pleasant stimulus
stimulus increases the decreases the likelihood of
likelihood of repeat ‘good’ repeat ‘bad’ behaviour
behaviour

Reinforcement strategies
When generating reward strategies at Step 4 above, the following possi-
bilities should be borne in mind.
Financial reinforcement
Traditionally financial reinforcement is the most explicit of the reinforce-
ment mechanisms used in organizations today, particularly in sales
oriented cultures. The use of bonus payments, prizes and other tangible
rewards is common. To be effective the financial reinforcement needs to
be clearly, closely and visibly linked to the behaviours and performance
that the organization requires.
A reward to an outbound call centre employee for a specific number of
appointments made on behalf of the sales force would be an example of
a reinforcement closely linked to a specified behaviour. A more sophisti-
cated system might link the reward to not only the number of appoint-
ments but also the quality of the subsequent meeting and also the quality
of the customer interaction.
An organization-wide performance bonus unrelated to an individual’s
contribution to that performance would be an example of a poorly linked
reinforcement.
Non-financial reinforcement
Feedback
Non-financial reinforcement tends to take the form of feedback given to
an individual about performance on specific tasks. The more specific the
feedback is, the more impactful the reinforcement can be. This feedback
can take both positive and negative forms. This might well depend on the
organizational culture and the managerial style of the boss. This feedback
perhaps could take the form of a coaching conversation, where specific
effective behaviours are encouraged, and specific ineffective behaviours
are discouraged and alternatives generated.
Social reinforcement
Social reinforcement takes the form of interpersonal actions: that is,
communications of either a positive or negative nature. Praise, compli-
ments, general recognition, perhaps greater (or lesser) attention can all act
as a positive reinforcement for particular behaviours and outcomes.
The underpinning theory
22

Similarly social reinforcement could also take the form of ‘naming and
shaming’ for ineffective performance.
Social reinforcement is not only useful for performance issues, but can
be extremely useful when an organizational culture change is under way.
Group approval or disapproval can be a determining factor in defining
what behaviours are acceptable or unacceptable within the culture. New
starters in an organization often spend quite some time working out
which behaviours attract which reactions from bosses and colleagues.
Motivation and behaviour
The pure behaviourist view of the world, prevalent in industry up to the
1960s, led to difficulties with motivating people to exhibit the ‘right’
behaviours. This in turn led researchers to investigate what management
styles worked and did not work.
In 1960 Douglas McGregor published his book The Human Side of
Enterprise. In it he described his Theory X and Theory Y, which looked at
underlying management assumptions about an organization’s workforce,
as demonstrated in Table 1.2.
Theory X was built on the assumption that workers are not inherently
motivated to work, seeing it as a necessary evil and therefore needing
Individual change
23
Table 1.2 Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X assumptions Theory Y assumptions
People dislike work People regard work as natural and normal
They need controlling and They respond to more than just control
direction or coercion, for example recognition and
They require security encouragement
They are motivated by threats They commit to the organization’s
of punishment objectives in line with the rewards
They avoid taking responsibility offered
They lack ambition They seek some inner fulfilment from work
They do not use their Given the right environment people
imagination willingly accept responsibility and
accountability
People can be creative and innovative
Source: McGregor (1960)

The underpinning theory
24
close supervision. Theory Y stated that human beings generally have a
need and a desire to work, and given the right environment are more than
willing to contribute to the organization’s success. McGregor ’s research
appeared to show that those managers who exhibited Theory Y beliefs
were more successful in eliciting good performance from their people.
Frederick Herzberg also investigated what motivated workers to give
their best performance. He was an American clinical psychologist who
suggested that workers have two sets of drives or motivators: a desire to
avoid pain or deprivation (hygiene factors) and a desire to learn and develop
(motivators). (See Table 1.3.) His work throughout the 1950s and 1960s
suggested that many organizations provided the former but not the latter.
An important insight of his was that the hygiene factors did not motivate
workers, but that their withdrawal would demotivate the workforce.
Although later research has not fully replicated his findings, Herzberg’s
seminal One more time: How do you motivate employees? (1968) has generated
more reprints than any other Harvard Business Review article.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 1.3 What are the underlying assumptions built into the behaviourist
philosophy, and how do they compare to McGregor’s theories?
Q 1.4 In a change programme based on the behaviourist approach,
what added insights would Herzberg’s ideas bring?
Q 1.5 If one of your team members is not good at giving presentations,
how would you address this using behaviourist ideas?
Table 1.3 Herzberg’s motivating factors
Hygiene factors Motivators
Pay Achievement
Company policy Recognition
Quality of supervision/management Responsibility
Working relations Advancement
Working conditions Learning
Status The type and nature of the work
Security
Source: adapted from Herzberg (1968)

Summary of behavioural approach
If you were to approach change from a behaviourist perspective you are
more likely to be acting on the assumption of McGregor ’s Theory X: the
only way to motivate and align workers to the change effort is through a
combination of rewards and punishments. You would spend time and
effort ensuring that the right reward strategy and performance manage-
ment system was in place and was clearly linked to an individual’s
behaviours. Herzberg’s ideas suggest that there is something more at play
than reward and punishment when it comes to motivating people. That is
not to say that the provision of Herzberg’s motivators cannot be used as
some sort of reward for correct behaviour.
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO CHANGE
Cognitive psychology developed out of a
frustration with the behaviourist approach.
The behaviourists focused solely on observ-
able behaviour. Cognitive psychologists were
much more interested in learning about
developing the capacity for language and a
person’s capacity for problem solving. They
were interested in things that happen within
a person’s brain. These are the internal
processes which behavioural psychology did
not focus on.
Cognitive theory is founded on the
premise that our emotions and our problems are a result of the way we
think. Individuals react in the way that they do because of the way they
appraise the situation they are in. By changing their thought processes,
individuals can change the way they respond to situations.
People control their own destinies by believing in and acting on the values and
beliefs that they hold.
R Quackenbush, Central Michigan University
Individual change
25

The underpinning theory
26
Much groundbreaking work has been done by Albert Ellis on rational-
emotive therapy (Ellis and Grieger, 1977) and Aaron Beck on cognitive
therapy (1970). Ellis emphasized:
[T]he importance of 1) people’s conditioning themselves to feel disturbed
(rather than being conditioned by parental and other external sources); 2) their
biological as well as cultural tendencies to think ‘crookedly’ and to needlessly
upset themselves; 3) their uniquely human tendencies to invent and create
disturbing beliefs, as well as their tendencies to upset themselves about their
disturbances; 4) their unusual capacity to change their cognitive, emotive and
behavioural processes so that they can: a) choose to react differently from the
way they usually do; b) refuse to upset themselves about almost anything that
may occur, and c) train themselves so that they can semi-automatically remain
minimally disturbed for the rest of their lives. (Ellis, in Henrik, 1980)
If you keep doing what you’re doing you’ll keep getting what you get.
Anon
Beck developed cognitive therapy based on ‘the underlying theoretical
rationale that an individual’s affect (moods, emotions) and behaviour are
largely determined by the way in which he construes the world; that is,
how a person thinks determines how he feels and reacts’ (A John Rush,
in Henrik, 1980).
Belief system theory emerged principally from the work of Rokeach
through the 1960s and 1970s. He suggested that an individual’s self
concept and set of deeply held values were both central to that person’s
beliefs and were his or her primary determinant. Thus individuals’ values
influence their beliefs, which in turn influence their attitudes.
Individuals’ attitudes influence their feelings and their behaviour.
Out of these approaches has grown a way of looking at change within
individuals in a very purposeful way. Essentially individuals need to look
at the way they limit themselves through adhering to old ways of
thinking, and replace that with new ways of being.
This approach is focused on the results that you want to achieve, although
crucial to their achievement is ensuring that there is alignment throughout
the cause and effect chain. The cognitive approach does not refer to the

Individual change
27
external stimuli and the responses to the stimuli. It is more concerned with
what individuals plan to achieve and how they go about this.
Achieving results
Key questions in achieving results in an organizational context, as shown
in Figure 1.5, are:
• Self concept and values: what are my core values and how do they
dovetail with those of my organization?
• Beliefs and attitudes: what are my limiting beliefs and attitudes and
with what do I replace them?
• Feelings: what is my most effective state of being to accomplish my
goals and how do I access it?
• Behaviour: what specifically do I need to be doing to achieve my goals
and what is my first step?
• Results: what specific outcomes do I want and what might get in the
way?
Setting goals
The cognitive approach advocates the use of goals. The assumption is that
the clearer the goal, the greater the likelihood of achievement. Consider
the following case study. Graduates at Yale University in the United States
were surveyed over a period of 20 years. Of those surveyed, 3 per cent
were worth more than the other 97 per cent put together. There were no
correlations with parental wealth, gender or ethnicity. The only difference
between the 3 per cent and the 97 per cent was that the former had clearly
articulated and written goals, and the latter grouping did not. (This is
perhaps just an apocryphal story, as the details of this case study are much
quoted on many ‘positive thinking’ websites but we have been unable to
trace the research back to where it should have originated at Yale.)
Self concept & values � Beliefs � Attitudes � Feelings � Behaviour � Results
Figure 1.5 Achieving results

However, research undertaken by one of the authors (Green, 2001) into
what makes for an outstanding sales person suggests that in the two key
areas of business focus and personal motivation, goals setting looms large.
The outstanding sales people had clearer and more challenging business
targets that they set themselves. These were coupled with very clear
personal goals as to what the sales person wanted to achieve personally
with the rewards achieved by business success.
This is further backed up by research conducted by Richard Bandler and
John Grinder (1979), creators of neuro-linguistic programming, who found
that the more successful psychotherapists were those who were able to get
their clients to define exactly what wellness looked like. This in turn led to
the idea of a ‘well-formed outcome’ which enabled significantly better
results to be achieved by those who set clear goals as opposed to those
with vague goals. The goals themselves were also more ambitious.
Making sense of our results
The cognitive approach suggests we pay attention to the way in which
we talk to ourselves about results. For example, after a particularly good
performance one person might say things such as, ‘I knew I could do it,
I’ll be able to do that again.’ Another person might say something like,
‘That was lucky, I doubt whether I’ll be able to repeat that.’ Likewise after
a poor or ineffective performance our first person might say something
like, ‘I could do that a lot better next time’, while the second person might
say, ‘I thought as much, I knew that it would turn out like this.’
Once we have identified our usual way of talking to ourselves we can
look at how these internal conversations with ourselves limit us, then
consider changing the script.
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
Reflect upon a time when you did not achieve one of your results.
What did you say to yourself?
What was your limiting belief?
What is the opposite belief?
What would it be like to hold the new belief?
How might your behaviour change as a result?
What results would you achieve as a consequence?
The underpinning theory
28

Individual change
29
Techniques for change
The cognitive approach has generated numerous techniques for
changing the beliefs of people and thereby improving their performance.
These include the following.
Positive listings
Simply list all the positive qualities you have, such as good feelings, good
experiences, good results, areas of skills, knowledge and expertise. By
accepting that these are all part of you, the individual, you can reinforce
all these positive thoughts, feelings and perceptions, which then lead to
enhanced beliefs.
Affirmations
An affirmation is a positive statement describing the way that you want
to be. It is important that the statement is:
• personal: ‘I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!’ It is you
who this is about, and it is as specific as you can make it;
• present tense: ‘I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!’ It is
not in the future, it is right now;
• positive: ‘I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!’ It
describes a positive attribute, not the absence of a negative attribute;
• potent: ‘I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!’ Use words
that mean something to you.
Try writing your own affirmation. Put it on a card and read it out 10 times
a day. As you do so, remember to imagine what you would feel, what you
would see, what you would hear if it were true.
Visualizations
Visualizations are very similar to affirmations but focus on a positive,
present mental image. Effective visualizations require you to enter a
relaxed state where you imagine a specific example of the way you want
to be. You imagine what you and others would see, what would be heard

and what would be felt. Using all your senses you imagine yourself
achieving the specific goal. You need to practise this on a regular basis.
Reframing
Reframing is a technique for reducing feelings and thoughts that impact
negatively on performance. You get daunted when going in to see the
senior management team? Currently you see them looming large, full of
colour, vitality and menacing presence? Imagine them in the boardroom,
but this time see them all in grey. Maybe shrink them in size, as you
would a piece of clip art in a document that you are word processing.
Turn down their volume so they sound quite quiet. Run through this
several times and see what effect it has on your anxiety.
Pattern breaking
Pattern breaking is a technique of physically or symbolically taking atten-
tion away from a negative state and focusing it on a positive. Take the
previous example of going into the boardroom to meet the senior
management team (or it could be you as the senior manager going out to
meet the staff and feeling a little awkward). You find you have slipped
into being a bit nervous, and catch yourself. Put your hand in the shape
of a fist to your mouth and give a deep cough, or at an appropriate
moment clap your hands firmly together and say, ‘Right, what I was
thinking was…’. Once you’ve done the distraction, you can say to your-
self, ‘That wasn’t me. This is me right now.’
Detachment
This is a similar technique with the same aim. Imagine a time when you did
not like who you were. Perhaps you were in the grip of a strong negative
emotion. See yourself in that state, then imagine yourself stepping outside
or away from your body, leaving all that negativity behind and becoming
quite calm and detached and more rational. When you next catch yourself
being in one of those moods, try stepping outside of yourself.
Anchoring and resource states
These are two techniques where you use a remembered positive experi-
ence from the past which has all the components of success. For example,
The underpinning theory
30

remember a time in the past where you gave an excellent presentation.
What did you see? What did you hear? What did you feel? Really enter
into that experience, then pinch yourself and repeat a word that comes to
mind. Rerun the experience and pinch yourself and say the word. Now
try it the other way, pinch yourself and say the word – and the experience
should return. Before your next presentation, as you go into the room
reconnect to the positive experience by pinching yourself and saying the
word. Does it work? If it does not, simply try something else.
Rational analysis
Rational analysis is a cognitive technique par excellence. It is based on the
notion that our beliefs are not necessarily rational: ‘I could never do that’
or ‘I’m always going to be like that’. Rational analysis suggests you write
down all the reasons that is incorrect. You need to be specific and not
generalize (for example, ‘I’m always doing that’ – always?). You need to set
measurable criteria, objectively based, and you need to use your powers
of logic. By continuously proving that this is an irrational belief you will
eventually come to disbelieve it.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 1.6 What might the main benefits be of a cognitive approach?
Q 1.7 What do you see as some of the limitations of this approach?
Summary of cognitive approach
The cognitive approach builds on the behaviourist approach by putting
behaviour into the context of beliefs, and focusing more firmly on
outcomes. Many cognitive techniques are used in the field of manage-
ment today, particularly in the coaching arena. This approach involves
focusing on building a positive mental attitude and some stretching goals,
backed up by a detailed look at what limiting beliefs produce behaviour
that becomes self-defeating.
A drawback of the cognitive approach is the lack of recognition of the
inner emotional world of the individual, and the positive and negative
impact that this can have when attempting to manage change. Some
obstacles to change need to be worked through, and cannot be made ‘OK’
by reframing or positive talk.
Individual change
31

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO CHANGE
The idea that humans go through a
psychological process during change
became evident due to research
published by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
(1969). The word ‘psychodynamic’ is
based on the idea that when facing
change in the external world, an indi-
vidual can experience a variety of
internal psychological states. As with the behavioural and cognitive
approaches to change, research into the psychodynamic approach began
not in the arena of organizations, but for Kubler-Ross in the area of termi-
nally ill patients. Later research showed that individuals going through
changes within organizations can have very similar experiences, though
perhaps less dramatic and less traumatic.
The Kubler-Ross model
Kubler-Ross published her seminal work On Death and Dying in 1969. This
described her work with terminally ill patients and the different psycho-
logical stages that they went through in coming to terms with their condi-
tion. Clearly this research was considered to have major implications for
people experiencing other types of profound change.
Kubler-Ross realized that patients – given the necessary conditions –
would typically go through five stages as they came to terms with their
prognosis. The stages were denial, anger, bargaining, depression and
finally acceptance.
Denial
People faced with such potentially catastrophic change would often not
be able to accept the communication. They would deny it to them-
selves. That is, they would not actually take it in, but would become
emotionally numb and have a sense of disbelief. Some would argue
that this is the body ’s way of allowing people to prepare themselves for
what is to follow. On a more trivial scale, some of us have experienced
the numbness and disbelief when our favourite sports team is defeated.
There is little that we can do but in a sense ‘shut down’. We do not want
The underpinning theory
32

to accept the news and expose ourselves to the heartache that that
would bring.
Anger
When people allow themselves to acknowledge what is happening they
enter the second stage, typically that of anger. They begin to ask them-
selves questions like, ‘Why me?’, ‘How could such a thing happen to
someone like me? If only it had been someone else’, ‘Surely it’s the
doctors who are to blame – perhaps they ’ve misdiagnosed’ (back into
denial). ‘Why didn’t they catch it in time?’
Anger and frustration can be focused externally, but for some of us it is
ourselves we blame. Why did we not see it coming, give up smoking? ‘It’s
always me who gets into trouble.’
In some ways we can see this process as a continuation of our not
wanting to accept the change and of wanting to do something, anything,
other than fully believe in it. Anger is yet another way of displacing our
real feelings about the situation.
Bargaining
When they have exhausted themselves by attacking others (or themselves)
people may still want to wrest back some control of the situation or of their
fate. Kubler-Ross saw bargaining as a stage that people would enter now.
For those who themselves are dying, and also for those facing the death
of a loved one, this stage can be typified by a conversation with them-
selves. Or if they are religious, this may be a conversation with God,
which asks for an extension of time. ‘If I promise to be good from now on,
if I accept some remorse for any ills I have committed, if I could just be
allowed to live to see my daughter ’s wedding, I’ll take back all the nasty
things I said about that person if you’ll only let them live.’
Once again we can see this stage as a deflection of the true gravity of
the situation. This is bargaining, perhaps verging on panic. The person is
desperately looking around for something, anything, to remedy the situ-
ation. ‘If only I could get it fixed or sorted everything would be all right.’
Depression
When it becomes clear that no amount of bargaining is going to provide
an escape from the situation, perhaps the true momentousness of it
Individual change
33

kicks in. How might we react? Kubler-Ross saw her patients enter a
depression at this stage. By depression we mean a mourning or grieving
for loss, because in this situation we will be losing all that we have ever
had and all those we have ever known. We shall be losing our future,
we shall be losing our very selves. We are at a stage where we are ready
to give up on everything. We are grieving for the loss that we are about
to endure.
For some, this depression can take the form of apathy or a sense of
pointlessness. For others it can take the form of sadness, and for some a
mixture of intense emotions and disassociated states.
Acceptance
Kubler-Ross saw many people move out of their depression and enter a
fifth stage of acceptance. Perhaps we might add the word ‘quiet’ to accep-
tance, because this is not necessarily a happy stage, but it is a stage where
people can in some ways come to terms with the reality of their situation
and the inevitability of what is happening to them. People have a sense of
being fully in touch with their feeling about the situation, their hopes and
fears, their anxieties. They are prepared.
Further clinical and management researchers have added to Kubler-
Ross’s five stages, in particular Adams, Hayes and Hopson (1976) as
follows and as illustrated in Figure 1.7:
The underpinning theory
34
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Figure 1.6 The process of change and adjustment
Source: based on Kubler-Ross (1969)

Individual change
35
• relief: ‘At least I now know what’s happening now, I had my suspi-
cions, I wasn’t just being paranoid’;
• shock and/or surprise: really a subset of denial but characterized by a
sense of disbelief;
• denial: total non-acceptance of the change and maybe ‘proving’ to
oneself that it is not happening and hoping that it will go away;
• anger: experiencing anger and frustration but really in an unaware
sort of way, that is, taking no responsibility for your emotions;
• bargaining: the attempt to avoid the inevitable;
• depression: hitting the lows and responding (or being unresponsive)
with apathy or sadness;
• acceptance: the reality of the situation is accepted;
• experimentation: after having been very inward looking with accep-
tance, the idea arrives that perhaps there are things ‘out there’.
‘Perhaps some of these changes might be worth at least thinking about.
Perhaps I might just ask to see the job description of that new job’;
• discovery: as you enter this new world that has changed there may be
the discovery that things are not as bad as you imagined. Perhaps the
company was telling the truth when it said there would be new
opportunities and a better way of working.
Figure 1.7 Adams, Hayes and Hopson’s (1976) change curve

The underpinning theory
36
Virginia Satir model
Virginia Satir, a family therapist, developed her model (Satir et al, 1991)
after observing individuals and families experience a wide range of
changes. Her model not only has a number of stages but also highlights
two key events that disturb or move an individual’s experience along: the
foreign element and the transforming idea (Figure 1.8).
She describes the initial state as one of maintaining the status quo. We
have all experienced periods within our lives – at home or at work –
where day to day events continue today as they have done in previous
days, and no doubt will be the same tomorrow. It may be that the organi-
zation you are working in is in a mature industry with well established
working practices which need little or no alteration. This is a state in
which if you carry on doing what you are doing, you will continue to get
what you are getting. The situation is one of relative equilibrium where
all parts of the system are in relative harmony. That is not to say, of course,
that there is no dissatisfaction. It is just that no one is effecting change.
This changes when something new enters the system. Satir calls it a
‘foreign element’ in the sense that a factor previously not present is intro-
duced. As with the examples from the two previous models it might be
the onset of an illness, or in the world of work, a new chief executive with
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Figure 1.8 Satir’s model

ideas about restructuring. Whatever the nature of this foreign element, it
has an effect.
A period of chaos ensues. Typically this is internal chaos. The world
itself may continue to function but the individual’s own perceived world
might be turned upside down, or inside out. He or she may be in a state
of disbelief – denial or emotional numbness – at first, not knowing what
to think or feel or how to act. Individuals may resist the notion that things
are going to be different. Indeed they may actually try to redouble their
efforts to ensure that the status quo continues as long as possible, even to
the extent of sabotaging the new ideas that are forthcoming. Their
support networks, which before had seemed so solid, might now not be
trusted to help and support the individual. They may not know who to
trust or where to go for help.
During this period of chaos, we see elements of anger and disorganiza-
tion permeating the individual’s world. Feelings of dread, panic and
despair are followed by periods of apathy and a sense of pointlessness. At
moments like this it may well seem like St John of the Cross’s Dark Night
of the Soul (2003) when all hope has vanished.
But it is often when things have reached their very worst that from
somewhere – usually from within the very depths of the person – the
germ of an idea or an insight occurs. In terms of the Kubler-Ross model
the individual is coming to terms with the reality of the situation and
experiencing acknowledgement and acceptance. He or she has seen the
light, or at least a glimmer of hope. An immense amount of work may still
need to be done, but the individual has generated this transforming idea,
which spreads some light on to the situation, and perhaps shows him or
her a way out of the predicament.
Once this transforming idea has taken root, the individual can begin
the journey of integration. Thus this period of integration requires the
new world order to be assimilated into the individual’s own world.
Imagine a restructuring has taken place at your place of work. You have
gone through many a sleepless night worrying what job you may end up
in, or whether you will have a role at the end of the change. The jobs on
offer do not appeal at all to you at first (‘Why didn’t they ask me for my
views when they formulated the new roles?’ ‘If they think I’m applying
for that they have another think coming!’). However as the chief execu-
tive’s thinking is made clearer through better communications, you
grudgingly accept that perhaps he did have a point in addressing the
Individual change
37

complacency within the firm. Then perhaps one day you wake up and
feel that maybe you might just have a look at that job description for the
job in Operations. You have never worked in that area before and you
have heard a few good things about the woman in charge.
You begin to accept the idea of a new role and ‘try it on for size’.
Perhaps at first you are just playing along, but soon it becomes more
experimentation and more of an exploration. As time moves on the
restructure is bedded into the organization, roles and responsibilities clar-
ified, new objectives and ways of working specified and results achieved.
A new status quo is born. The scars are still there perhaps but they are not
hurting so much.
Gerald Weinberg (1997), in his masterly book on change, but with a title
that might not appeal to everyone (Quality Software Management, Volume
4: Anticipating Change) draws heavily on the Satir model and maps on to
it the critical points that can undermine or support the change process.
(See Figure 1.9.) Weinberg shows that if the change is not planned well
enough, or if the receivers of change consciously or unconsciously decide
to resist, the change effort will falter.
Summary of psychodynamic approach
The psychodynamic approach is useful for managers who want to under-
stand the reactions of their staff during a change process and deal with
them. These models allow managers to gain an understanding of why
people react the way they do. It identifies what is going on in the inner
world of their staff when they encounter change.
As with all models, the ones we have described simplify what can be
quite a complex process. Individuals do not necessarily know that they
are going through different phases. What they may experience is a range
of different emotions (or lack of emotion), which may cluster together
into different groupings which could be labelled one thing or another.
Any observer, at the time, might see manifestations of these different
emotions played out in the individual’s behaviour.
Research suggests that these different phases may well overlap, with the
predominant emotion of one stage gradually diminishing over time as a
predominant emotion of the next stage takes hold. For example, the deep
sense of loss and associated despondency, while subsiding over time,
might well swell up again and engulf the individual with grief, either for
The underpinning theory
38

no apparent reason, or because of a particular anniversary, contact with a
particular individual or an external event reported on the news.
Individuals will go through a process which, either in hindsight or
from an observer ’s point of view, will have a number of different phases
which themselves are delineated in time and by different characteristics.
However the stages themselves will not necessarily have clear begin-
nings or endings, and characteristics from one stage may appear in
other stages.
Satir ’s model incorporates the idea of a defining event – the trans-
forming idea – that can be seen to change, or be the beginning of the
change for, an individual. It may well be an insight, or waking up one
morning and sensing that a cloud had been lifted. From that point on
there is a qualitative difference in the person undergoing change. He or
Individual change
39
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Figure 1.9 Critical points in the change process
Source: Weinberg (1997)
Reprinted by permission of Dorset House Publishing. All rights reserved.

she can see the light at the end of the tunnel, or have a sense that there is
a future direction.
Key learnings here are that everyone to some extent goes through the
highs and lows of the transitions curve, although perhaps in different
times and in different ways. It is not only perfectly natural and normal
but actually an essential part of being human.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 1.8 Think of a current or recent change in your organization.
• Can you map the progress of the change on to Satir’s or
Weinberg’s model?
• At what points did the change falter?
• At what points did it accelerate?
• What factors contributed in each case?
THE HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY APPROACH
TO CHANGE
The humanistic psychological approach to change combines some of the
insights from the previous three approaches while at the same time devel-
oping its own. It emerged as a movement in the United States during the
1950s and 1960s. The American Association of Humanistic Psychology
describes it as ‘concerned with topics having little place in existing theories
and systems: e.g. love, creativity, self, growth… self-actualization, higher
values, being, becoming, responsibility, meaning… transcendental experi-
ence, peak experience, courage and related concepts’.
In this section we look at how the humanistic approach differs from
the behavioural and cognitive approaches, list some of the key assump-
tions of this approach, and look at three important models within
humanistic psychology.
Table 1.4 charts some of the similarities and differences between the
psychoanalytic, behavioural, cognitive and humanistic approaches.
Although taken from a book more concerned with counselling and
psychotherapy, it illustrates where humanistic psychology stands in rela-
tion to the other approaches.
The underpinning theory
40

Individual change
Table 1.4 The psychoanalytic, behaviourist, cognitive and humanistic
approaches
Theme Psychoanalytic Behaviourism Cognitive Humanistic
Psychodynamic Yes No Yes Yes
approach – looking
for what is behind
surface behaviour
Action approach – No Yes Yes Yes
looking at actual
conduct of person,
trying new things
Acknowledgement of Yes No No Yes
importance of sense-
making, resistance, etc
Use of imagery, No Yes Yes Yes
creativity
Use in groups as Yes No No Yes
well as individual
Emphasis on whole No No No Yes
person
Emphasis on No No No Yes
gratification, joy,
individuation
Adoption of medical Yes Yes Yes No
model of mental
illness
Felt experience of the Yes No No Yes
practitioner important
as a tool for change
Mechanistic No Yes Yes No
approach to client
Open to new No No Yes Yes
paradigm research
methods
Source: adapted from Rowan (1983)
Note: Although the humanistic and psychoanalytic approaches are both psychodynamic,
we have differentiated between them in order to focus on the maximizing potential
aspect of the humanistic school.
41

The underpinning theory
42
Humanistic psychology has a number of key areas of focus:
• the importance of subjective awareness as experienced by the indi-
vidual;
• the importance of taking responsibility for one’s situations – or at least
the assumption that whatever the situation there will be an element
of choice in how you think, how you feel and how you act;
• the significance of the person as a whole entity (a holistic approach)
in the sense that as humans we are not just what we think or what we
feel, we are not just our behaviours. We exist within a social and
cultural context.
In juxtaposition with Freud’s view of the aim of therapy as moving the
individual from a state of neurotic anxiety to ordinary unhappiness,
humanistic psychology has ‘unlimited aims… our prime aim is to enable
the person to get in touch with their real self ’ (Rowan, 1983).
Maslow and the hierarchy of needs
Maslow did not follow the path of earlier psychologists by looking for
signs of ill health and disease. He researched what makes men and
women creative, compassionate, spontaneous and able to live their lives
to the full. He therefore studied the lives of men and women who had
exhibited these traits during their lives, and in so doing came to his theory
of motivation, calling it a hierarchy of needs. (See Figure 1.10.)
Maslow believed that human beings have an inbuilt desire to grow and
develop and move towards something he called self-actualization.
However, in order to develop self-actualization an individual has to over-
come or satisfy a number of other needs first.
One of Maslow’s insights was that until the lower level needs were met
an individual would not progress or be interested in the needs higher up
the pyramid. He saw the first four levels of needs as ‘deficiency ’ needs.
By that he meant that it was the absence of satisfaction that led to the
individual being motivated to achieve something.
Physiological needs are requirements such as food, water, shelter and
sexual release. Clearly when they are lacking the individual will experience
physiological symptoms such as hunger, thirst, discomfort and frustration.

Safety needs are those that are concerned with the level of threat and desire
for a sense of security. Although safety needs for some might be concerned
with actual physical safety, Maslow saw that for many in the western world
the need was based more around the idea of psychological safety. We might
experience this level of need when faced with redundancy.
Love and belonging needs are more interpersonal. This involves the
need for affection and affiliation on an emotionally intimate scale. It is
important here to note that Maslow introduces a sense of reciprocity into
the equation. A sense of belonging can rarely be achieved unless an indi-
vidual gives as well as receives. People have to invest something of them-
selves in the situation or with the person or group. Even though it is higher
in the hierarchy than physical or safety needs, the desire for love and
belonging is similar in that it motivates people when they feel its absence.
Self-esteem needs are met in two ways. They are met through the satis-
faction individuals get when they achieve competence or mastery in
doing something. They are also met through receiving recognition for
their achievement.
Maslow postulated one final need – the need for self-actualization. He
described it as ‘the desire to become more and more what one is, to
become everything that one is capable of becoming’. He observed that
people continued to search for something else once all their other needs
were being satisfied. Individuals try to become the person they believe or
Individual change
43
Self-actualization needs
Self-esteem needs
Love and belonging needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
Figure 1.10 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Source: Maslow (1970)

feel that they are capable of becoming. It is a difficult concept to put into
words. Perhaps it is a longing for something to emerge from the depths of
your being.
Before his death, Rabbi Zusya said, ‘In the coming world, they will not
ask me, “Why were you not Moses?” They will ask me, “Why were you
not Zusya?”’
Martin Buber, 1961, Tales of the Hasidim
Self-actualization can take many forms, depending on the individual. These
variations may include the quest for knowledge, understanding, peace, self-
fulfilment, meaning in life, or beauty… but the need for beauty is neither
higher nor lower than the other needs at the top of the pyramid. Self-actu-
alization needs aren’t hierarchically ordered.
(Griffin, 1991)
Rogers and the path to personal growth
Carl Rogers is one of the founders of the humanistic movement. He has
written extensively on the stages through which people travel on their
journey towards ‘becoming a person’. Rogers’ work was predominately
based on his observations in the field of psychotherapy. However, he was
increasingly interested in how people learn, how they exercise power and
how they behave within organizations.
Rogers is an important researcher and writer for consultants, as his
‘client-centred approach’ to growth and development provides clues and
cues as to how we as change agents might bring about growth and devel-
opment with individuals within organizations. Rogers (1967) highlighted
three crucial conditions for this to occur:
• Genuineness and congruence: to be aware of your own feelings, to be
real, to be authentic. Rogers’ research showed that the more genuine
and congruent the change agent is in the relationship, the greater the
probability of change in the personality of the client.
• Unconditional positive regard: a genuine willingness to allow the
client’s process to continue, and an acceptance of whatever feelings
The underpinning theory
44

Individual change
45
are going on inside the client. Whatever feeling the client is experi-
encing, be it anger, fear, hatred, then that is all right. It is saying that
underneath all this the person is all right.
• Empathic understanding: in Rogers’ words, ‘ it is only as I understand
the feelings and thoughts which seem so horrible to you, or so weak,
or so sentimental, or so bizarre – it is only as I see them as you see
them, and accept them and you, that you feel really free to explore all
the hidden roots and frightening crannies of your inner and often
buried experience.’
Rogers continues, ‘in trying to grasp and conceptualize the process of
change… I gradually developed this concept of a process, discriminating
seven stages in it’. The following are the consistently recurring qualities at
each stage as described by Rogers:
• One:
– an unwillingness to communicate about self, only externals;
– no desire for change;
– feelings neither recognized nor owned;
– problems neither recognized nor perceived.
• Two:
– expressions begin to flow;
– feelings may be shown but not owned;
– problems perceived but seen as external;
– no sense of personal responsibility;
– experience more in terms of the past not the present.
• Three:
– a little talk about the self, but only as an object;
– expression of feelings, but in the past;
– non-acceptance of feelings; seen as bad, shameful, abnormal;
– recognition of contradictions;
– personal choice seen as ineffective.
• Four:
– more intense past feelings;
– occasional expression of current feelings;
– distrust and fear of direct expression of feelings;

– a little acceptance of feelings;
– possible current experiencing;
– some discovery of personal constructs;
– some feelings of self-responsibility in problems;
– close relationships seen as dangerous;
– some small risk-taking.
• Five:
– feelings freely expressed in the present;
– surprise and fright at emerging feelings;
– increasing ownership of feelings;
– increasing self-responsibility;
– clear facing up to contradictions and incongruence.
• Six:
– previously stuck feelings experienced in the here and now;
– the self seen as less of an object, more of a feeling;
– some physiological loosening;
– some psychological loosening – that is, new ways of seeing the
world and the self;
– incongruence between experience and awareness reduced.
• Seven:
– new feelings experienced and accepted in the present;
– basic trust in the process;
– self becomes confidently felt in the process;
– personal constructs reformulated but much less rigid;
– strong feelings of choice and self-responsibility.
There are a number of key concepts that emerge from Rogers’ work
which are important when managing change within organizations at an
individual level:
• The creation of a facilitating environment, through authenticity, posi-
tive regard and empathic understanding, enables growth and devel-
opment to occur.
• Given this facilitating environment and the correct stance of the
change agent, clients will be able to surface and work through any
negative feelings they may have about the change.
The underpinning theory
46

• Given this facilitating environment and the correct stance of the
change agent, there will be a movement from rigidity to more fluidity
in the client’s approach to thinking and feeling. This allows more
creativity and risk-taking to occur.
• Given this facilitating environment and the correct stance of the
change agent, clients will move towards accepting a greater degree of
self-responsibility for their situation, enabling them to have more
options from which to choose.
Gestalt approach to individual and organizational change
Gestalt therapy originated with Fritz Perls, who was interested in the here
and now. Perls believed that a person’s difficulties today arise because of
the way he or she is acting today, here and now. In Perls’s words:
[T]he goal… must be to give him the means with which he can solve his
present problems and any that may arise tomorrow or next year. The tool is
self-support, and this he achieves by dealing with himself and his problems
with all the means presently at his command, right now. If he can be truly
aware at every instant of himself and his actions on whatever level – fantasy,
verbal or physical – he can see how he is producing his difficulties, he can
see what his present difficulties are, and he can help himself to solve them
in the present, in the here and now.
(Perls, 1976)
A consultant using a Gestalt approach has the primary aim of showing
clients that they interrupt themselves in achieving what they want.
Gestalt is experiential, not just based on talking, and there is an
emphasis on doing, acting and feeling. Gestaltists use a cycle of experi-
ence to map how individuals and groups enact their desires, but more
often than not how they block themselves from completing the cycle as
shown in Figure 1.11.
A favourite saying of Fritz Perls was to ‘get out of your mind and come
to your senses’. Gestalt always begins with what one is experiencing in
the here and now. Experiencing has as its basis what one is sensing.
‘Sensing determines the nature of awareness’ (Perls, Hefferline and
Goodman, 1951).
Individual change
47

What we sense outside of ourselves or within leads to awareness.
Awareness comes when we alight or focus upon what we are experi-
encing. Nevis (1998) describes it as ‘the spontaneous sensing of what
arises or becomes figural, and it involves direct, immediate experience’.
He gives a comprehensive list of the many things that we can be aware of
at any one moment, including the following:
• what we sense: sights, sounds, textures, tastes, smells, kinaesthetic
stimulations and so on;
• what we verbalize and visualize: thinking, planning, remembering,
imagining and so on;
• what we feel: happiness, sadness, fearfulness, wonder, anger, pride,
empathy, indifference, compassion, anxiety and so on;
• what we value: inclinations, judgements, conclusions, prejudices and
so on;
• how we interact: participation patterns, communication styles,
energy levels, norms and so on.
The underpinning theory
48
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Figure 1.11 The Gestalt cycle

Individual change
49
Although your awareness can only ever be in the present, this awareness
can include memory of the past, anticipation of the future, inner experi-
ence and awareness of others and the environment.
Mobilization of energy occurs as awareness is focused on a specific facet.
Imagine you have to give a piece of negative feedback to a colleague. As
you focus on this challenge by bringing it into the foreground, you might
start to feel butterflies in your stomach, or sweaty palms. This is like using
a searchlight to illuminate a specific thing and bring it into full awareness.
In Nevis’s terminology this brings about an ‘energized concern’.
This energy then needs to be released typically by doing something, by
taking action, by making contact in and with the outside world. You give
the feedback.
Closure might come when the colleague thanks you for the feedback
and compliments you on the clarity and level of insight. Or perhaps you
have an argument and agree to disagree. You will then experience a
reduction in your energy, and will complete the cycle by having come to
a resolution, with the object of attention fading into the background once
more. The issue of the colleague’s performance becomes less important.
For real change to have occurred (either internally or out in the world)
the full Gestalt cycle will need to have been experienced.
Nevis shows how the Gestalt cycle maps on to stages in managerial
decision making:
Awareness
Data generation, Seeking information, Sharing information, Reviewing past
performance, Environmental scanning
Energy/action
Attempts to mobilize energy and interest in ideas or proposals, Supporting
ideas presented by others, Identifying and experiencing differences and
conflicts of competing interests or views, Supporting own position, Seeking
maximum participation
Contact
Joining in a common objective, Common recognition of problem definition,
Indications of understanding, not necessarily agreement, Choosing a course
of possible future action
Resolution/closure
Testing, checking for common understanding, Reviewing what’s occurred,
Acknowledgement of what’s been accomplished and what remains to be
done, Identifying the meaning of the discussion, Generalizing from what’s
been learned, Beginning to develop implementation and action plans

The underpinning theory
50
Withdrawal
Pausing to let things ‘sink in’
Reducing energy and interest in the issue
Turning to other tasks or problems
Ending the meeting.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 1.9 Use the Gestalt curve to describe how a manager moves from a
concern about the team’s performance to launching and
executing a change initiative.
Summary of humanistic psychology approach
For the manager, the world of humanistic psychology opens up some
interesting possibilities and challenges. For years we have been told that
the world of organizations is one that is ruled by the rational mind.
Recent studies such as Daniel Goleman’s (1998) on emotional intelligence
and management competence (see Chapter 4) suggest that what makes
for more effective managers is their degree of emotional self-awareness
and ability to engage with others on an emotional level. Humanistic
psychology would not only agree, but would go one step further in
stating that without being fully present emotionally in the situation you
cannot be fully effective, and you will not be able to maximize your
learning, or anyone else’s learning.
PERSONALITY AND CHANGE
We have looked at different approaches to change, and suggested that
individuals do not always experience these changes in a consistent or
uniform way. However, we have not asked whether people are different,
and if so, whether their difference affects the way they experience change.
We have found in working with individuals and teams through change
that it is useful to identify and openly discuss people’s personality types.
This information helps people to understand their responses to change. It
also helps people to see why other people are different from them, and to
be aware of how that may lead to either harmony or conflict.

The most effective tool for identifying personality type is the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator™ (MBTI)™. This is a personality inventory developed
by Katherine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Myers. The MBTI™ is based
on the work of the Swiss analytical psychologist Carl Jung. The MBTI™
identifies eight different personality ‘preferences’ that we all use at
different times – but each individual will have a preference for one partic-
ular combination over the others.
These eight preferences can be paired as set out below.
Where individuals draw their energy
Extraversion is a preference for drawing energy from the external world,
tasks and things, whereas Introversion is a preference for drawing
energy from the internal world of one’s thoughts and feelings.
What individuals pay attention to and how they receive data and
information
Sensing is concerned with the five senses and what is and has been
whereas Intuition is concerned with possibilities and patterns and what
might be.
How an individual makes decisions
Thinking is about making decisions in an objective, logical way based on
concepts of right and wrong whereas Feeling is about making decisions
in a more personal values-driven and empathic way.
What sort of lifestyle an individual enjoys
Judging is a preference for living in a more structured and organized
world which is more orderly and predictable, whereas Perceiving is a
preference for living in a more flexible or spontaneous world where
options are kept open and decisions not made until absolutely necessary.
So for example, a person who has a preference for Introversion, Intuition,
Thinking and Judging (an INTJ, in the jargon) will have certain character-
istics. Likewise an individual with a preference for Extroversion, Sensing,
Feeling and Perceiving (ESFP) will have quite different characteristics.
Individual change
51

The MBTI™ has been researched and validated for over 50 years now,
and people rarely move permanently from their preferred ‘home’ type.
That is not to say that Extroverts cannot spend time reflecting and being
on their own, nor Introverts spend time in large groups discussing a
broad range of issues. What it means is that if you are a particular type
you have particular preferences and are different from other people of
different types. This means that when it comes to change, people with
different preferences react differently to change, both when they initiate
it and when they are on the receiving end of it.
Although there are 16 MBTI™ types, in our work with managers and
leaders we have found that grouping them into four categories can
generate significant understanding of the change process (see for
example Green, 2007). One group of people will be cautious and
careful about change – the Thoughtful Realists (those who are intro-
verted sensing types). A second group will generate concepts that
represent how things should be – the Thoughtful Innovators (intro-
verted intuitives). A third group will have the energy and enthusiasm
to get things done – the Action Oriented Realists (extraverted sensing).
Meanwhile the fourth group – the Action Oriented Innovators
(extraverted intuitives) – will be wanting to move into new areas and
soon! (See Table 1.5.)
STOP AND THINK!
Q 1.10 Use the Myers-Briggs quadrants to identify your reactions to
change.
• In what ways do you fit the various profiles and in what ways
do you differ?
• How would you deal with someone like this when going
through a challenging change process?
• How do you like to be managed through change?
The underpinning theory
52

MANAGING CHANGE IN SELF AND OTHERS
We now look at some of the factors that arise when you as a manager are
required to manage change within your organization. We will:
• discuss individual and group propensity for change;
• introduce the work of Edgar Schein and his suggestions for managing
change;
• describe some of the ways that change can be thwarted;
• identify how managers or change agents can help others to change.
Individual change
53
Table 1.5 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator™ types
MBTI™ type by IS Thoughtful Realist IN Thoughtful
Quadrant Innovator
What they are most Practicalities Thoughts, ideas,
concerned with concepts
How they learn Pragmatically and by Conceptually by
reading and observing reading, listening and
making connections
Where they focus Deciding what should be Generating new ideas
their change efforts kept and what needs and theories
changing
Motto ‘If it isn’t broke don’t fix it’ ‘Let’s think ahead’
MBTI™ type by ES Action Oriented EN Action Oriented
Quadrant Realist Innovator
What they are most Actions New ways of doing
concerned with things
How they learn Actively and by Creatively and with
experimentation others
Where they focus Making things better Putting new ideas into
their change efforts practice
Motto ‘Let’s just do it’ ‘Let’s change it’

RESPONSES TO CHANGE
Those who let it happen.
Those who make it happen.
Those who wonder what happened.
Anon
Propensity for change
We have isolated five factors, as shown in Figure 1.12, that have an influ-
ence on an individual’s response to change. As a manager of change you
will need to pay attention to these five areas if you wish to achieve posi-
tive responses to change:
• The nature of the change varies. Changes can be externally imposed
or internally generated. They can be evolutionary or revolutionary in
nature. They can be routine or one-off. They can be mundane or
transformative. They can be about expansion or contraction.
Different types of change can provoke different attitudes and
different behaviours.
The underpinning theory
54
3. Organizational
history
4. Type of
individual
5. Individual
history
2. Consequences
of the change
1. Nature of the
change
Response
to change
Figure 1.12 Five factors in responding to change

Individual change
55
• The consequences of the change are significant. For whose benefit are
the changes seen to be (employees, customers, the community, the
shareholders, the board)? Who will be the winners and who will be
the losers?
• The organizational history matters too. This means the track record of
how the organization has handled change in the past (or how the
acquiring organization is perceived), what the prevailing culture is,
what the capacity of the organization is in terms of management
expertise and resources to manage change effectively, and what the
future, beyond the change, is seen to hold.
• The personality type of the individual is a major determining factor in
how she or he responds to change. The Myers-Briggs type of the indi-
vidual (reviewed earlier) can give us an indication of how an indi-
vidual will respond to change. People’s motivating forces are also
important – for example, are they motivated by power, status, money
or affiliation and inclusion?
• The history of an individual can also give us clues as to how he or she
might respond. By history we mean previous exposure and responses
to change, levels of knowledge, skills and experience the individual
has, areas of stability in his or her life and stage in his or her career. For
example an individual who has previously experienced redundancy
might re-experience the original trauma and upheaval regardless of
how well the current one is handled. Or he or she may have acquired
sufficient resilience and determination from the previous experience
to be able to take this one in his or her stride.
Schein’s model of transformative change
Edgar Schein has been a leading researcher and practitioner in the fields
of individual, organizational and cultural change over the last 20 years.
His seminal works have included Process Consultation (1988) and
Organizational Culture and Leadership (1992).
Schein elaborated on Lewin’s (1952) model by drawing on other disci-
plines such as clinical psychology and group dynamics. This model influ-
enced much OD and coaching work throughout the 1990s. See Chapter 3
for Lewin’s original model.

SCHEIN’S ELABORATION OF LEWIN’S MODEL
Stage One
Unfreezing: Creating the motivation to change:
• Disconfirmation.
• Creation of survival anxiety or guilt.
• Creation of psychological safety to overcome learning anxiety.
Stage Two
Learning new concepts and new meanings for old concepts:
• Imitation of and identification with role models.
• Scanning for solutions and trial-and-error learning.
Stage Three
Refreezing: Internalizing new concepts and meanings:
• Incorporation into self-concept and identity.
• Incorporation into ongoing relationships.
Schein sees change as occurring in three stages:
• unfreezing: creating the motivation to change;
• learning new concepts and new meanings from old concepts;
• internalizing new concepts and meanings.
During the initial unfreezing stage people need to unlearn certain things
before they can focus fully on new learning.
Schein says that there are two forces at play within every individual
undergoing change. The first force is learning anxiety. This is the anxiety
associated with learning something new. Will I fail? Will I be exposed?
The second, competing force is survival anxiety. This concerns the pres-
sure to change. What if I don’t change? Will I get left behind? These anxi-
eties can take many forms. Schein lists four of the associated fears:
• Fear of temporary incompetence: the conscious appreciation of one’s
lack of competence to deal with the new situation.
The underpinning theory
56

• Fear of punishment for incompetence: the
apprehension that you will somehow lose out
or be punished when this incompetence is
discovered or assessed.
• Fear of loss of personal identity: the inner
turmoil when your habitual ways of thinking
and feeling are no longer required, or when
your sense of self is defined by a role or position
that is no longer recognized by the organization.
• Fear of loss of group membership: in the same way that your identity
can be defined by your role, for some it can be profoundly affected by
the network of affiliations you have in the workplace. In the same way
that the stable equilibrium of a team or group membership can foster
states of health, instability caused by shifting team roles or the disinte-
gration of a particular group can have an extremely disturbing effect.
What gets in the way of change: resistance to change
Leaders and managers of change sometimes cannot understand why indi-
viduals and groups of individuals do not wholeheartedly embrace changes
that are being introduced. They often label this ‘resistance to change’.
Schein suggests that there are two principles for transformative change to
work: first, survival anxiety must be greater than learning anxiety, and
second, learning anxiety must be reduced rather than increasing survival
anxiety. Used in connection with Lewin’s force field (see Chapter 3), we see
that survival anxiety is a driving force and learning anxiety is a restraining
force. Rather than attempting to increase the individual or group’s sense of
survival anxiety, Schein suggests reducing the individual’s learning anxiety.
Remember also that the restraining forces may well have some validity.
How do you reduce learning anxiety? You do it by increasing the
learner ’s sense of psychological safety through a number of interventions.
Schein lists a few:
• a compelling vision of the future;
• formal training;
• involvement of the learner;
Individual change
57

• informal training of relevant family groups/teams;
• practice fields, coaches, feedback;
• positive role models;
• support groups;
• consistent systems and structures;
• imitation and identification versus scanning and trial and error.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 1.11 Think of a recent skill that you had to learn in order to keep up with
external changes. This could be installing a new piece of software,
or learning about how a new organization works.
• What were your survival anxieties?
• What were your learning anxieties?
• What helped you to change?
How managers and change agents help others to change
We have listed in Table 1.6 some of the interventions that an organization and
its management could carry out to facilitate the change process. We have
categorized them into the four approaches described earlier in this chapter.
From the behavioural perspective a manager must ensure that reward
policies and performance management is aligned with the changes taking
place. For example if the change is intended to improve the quality of
output, then the company should not reward quantity of output. Kerr
(1995) lists several traps that organizations fall into:
We hope for: But reward:
Teamwork and collaboration The best team members
Innovative thinking and risk-taking Proven methods and no mistakes
Development of people skills Technical achievements
Employee involvement and Tight control over operations
empowerment
High achievement Another year ’s effort
The underpinning theory
58

Managers and staff need to know in detail what they are expected to do and
how they are expected to perform. Behaviour needs to be defined, espe-
cially when many organizations today are promoting ‘the company way’.
From the cognitive perspective a manager needs to employ strategies
that link organizational goals, individual goals and motivation. This will
create both alignment and motivation. An additional strategy is to
provide ongoing coaching through the change process to reframe obsta-
cles and resistances.
The psychodynamic perspective suggests adapting one’s managerial
approach and style to the emotional state of the change implementers.
This is about treating people as adults and having mature conversations
with them. The psychodynamic approach enables managers to see the
benefits of looking beneath the surface of what is going on, and uncov-
ering thoughts that are not being articulated and feelings that are not
being expressed. Working through these feelings can release energy for
the change effort rather than manifesting as resistance to change.
Drawing on the transitions curve we can plot suitable interventions
throughout the process. (See Figure 1.13.)
Individual change
59
Table 1.6 Representative interventions to facilitate the change process
Behavioural Cognitive
Performance management Management by objectives
Reward policies Business planning and
Values translated into behaviours performance frameworks
Management competencies Results based coaching
Skills training Beliefs, attitudes and
Management style cultural interventions
Performance coaching Visioning
360 degree feedback
Understanding change dynamics Living the values
Counselling people Developing the
through change learning organization
Surfacing hidden issues Addressing the hierarchy of needs
Addressing emotions Addressing emotions
Treating employees and Fostering communication and
managers as adults consultation
Psychodynamic Humanistic

The humanistic psychology perspective builds on the psychodynamic
ethos by believing that people are inherently capable of responding to
change, but require enabling structures and strategies so to do. Healthy
levels of open communication, and a positive regard for individuals and
their potential contribution to the organization’s goals, contribute to
creating an environment where individuals can grow and develop.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
• Learning to do something new usually involves a temporary dip in
performance.
• When learning something new, we focus on it and become very
conscious of our performance. Once we have learnt something we
become far less conscious of our performance. We are then uncon-
sciously competent. This continues until something goes wrong, or
there is a new challenge.
The underpinning theory
60
Minimize shock
Give full & early
communication
of intentions,
possibilities and
overall direction
of change
Discuss
implications of
change with
individuals and
teams
Pay attention to
people’s needs
& concerns
Practice
patience
Listen, empathize,
support
Don’t suppress conflict
or different views &
emotions
Help individuals
weather the storm
Recognize how change
can trigger off past
experiences in
individuals
Remember people
aren’t necessarily
attacking you
personally
Help others
complete
Acknowledge
the ending of
an era
Allow others
to take
responsibility
Encourage
Create goals
Coach
Encourage risk
taking
Foster
communication
Create
development
opportunities
Discuss
meaning &
learning
Reflect on
experience
Celebrate
successes
Prepare to
move on
Figure 1.13 Management interventions through the change process

• There are four key schools of thought when considering individual
change:
– The behaviourist approach is about changing the behaviours of
others through reward and punishment. This leads to behavioural
analysis and use of reward strategies.
– The cognitive approach is about achieving results through posi-
tive reframing. Associated techniques are goal setting and
coaching to achieve results.
– The psychodynamic approach is about understanding and
relating to the inner world of change. This is especially signifi-
cant when people are going through highly affecting change.
– The humanistic psychology approach is about believing in devel-
opment and growth, and maximizing potential. The emphasis is
on healthy development, healthy authentic relationships and
healthy organizations.
• Personality type has a significant effect on an individual’s ability to
initiate or adapt to change.
• The individual’s history, the organization’s history, the type of change
and the consequence of the change are also key factors in an indi-
vidual’s response to change.
• Schein identified two competing anxieties in individual change:
survival anxiety versus learning anxiety. Survival anxiety has to be
greater than learning anxiety if a change is to happen. He advocated
the need for managers to reduce people’s learning anxiety rather than
increase their survival anxiety.
• Each of the four approaches above leads to a set of guidelines for
managers:
– Behavioural: get your reward strategies right.
– Cognitive: link goals to motivation.
– Psychodynamic: treat people as individuals and understand
their emotional states as well as your own!
– Humanistic: be authentic and believe that people want to grow
and develop.
Individual change
61

62
2
Team change
INTRODUCTION
This chapter will look at teams, team development and change from a
number of perspectives and will be asking a number of pertinent questions:
• What is a group and when is it a team?
• Why do you need teams?
• What types of organizational teams are there?
• How do you improve team effectiveness?
• What does team change look like?
• What are the leadership issues in team change?
• How do individuals affect team dynamics?
• How well do teams initiate and adapt to organizational change?
The chapter aims to enhance understanding of the nature of teams and
how they develop, identify how teams perform in change situations, and

develop strategies for managing teams through change and change
through teams.
We open with a discussion around what constitutes a group and what
constitutes a team. We will also look at the phenomena of different types of
teams: for example, virtual teams, self-organizing teams and project teams.
Models of team functioning, change and development will be explored.
We look at the various components of team working, and at how teams
develop and how different types of people combine to make a really
effective (or not) team.
We take as our basic model Tuckman’s (1965) model of team develop-
ment to illustrate how teams change over time. This is the forming,
storming, norming and performing model. But we will add to it by differ-
entiating between the task aspects of team development and the people
aspects of team development.
Finally we look at the way in which teams can impact or react to orga-
nizational change.
WHAT IS A GROUP AND WHEN IS IT A TEAM?
There has been much academic discussion as to what constitutes a team
and what constitutes a group. In much of the literature the two terms are
used indistinguishably. Yet there are crucial differences, and anyone
working in an organization instinctively knows when he or she is in a
team and when he or she is in a group. We will attempt to clarify the
essential similarities and differences. This is important when looking at
change because teams and groups experience change in different ways.
Schein and Bennis (1965) suggest that a group is ‘any number of people
who interact with each other, are psychologically aware of each other, and
who perceive themselves to be a group’. Morgan et al (1986) suggest that
‘a team is a distinguishable set of two or more individuals who interact
interdependently and adaptively to achieve specified, shared, and valued
objectives’. Sundstrom, de Meuse and Futrell (1990) define the work team
as ‘A small group of individuals who share responsibility for outcomes for
their organizations’.
Cohen and Bailey (1997) define a team as ‘a collection of individuals
who are interdependent in their tasks, who share responsibility for
outcomes, who see themselves and who are seen by others as an intact
Team change
63

social entity embedded in one or more larger social systems (for example,
business unit or the corporation), and who manage their relationships
across organizational boundaries’.
Our own list of differentiators appears in Table 2.1.
A group is a collection of individuals who draw a boundary around
themselves. Or perhaps we from the outside might draw a boundary
around them and thus define them as a group. A team on the other hand,
with its common purpose, is generally tighter and clearer about what it is
and what its raison d’être is. Its members know exactly who is involved
and what their goal is. Of course it turns out that we are speaking hypo-
thetically here, as any one of us has seen teams within organizations that
appear to have no sense at all of what they are really about!
Let us illustrate the difference between a team and a group by using an
example. We might look into an organization and see the Finance
Department. The Finance Controller heads up a Finance Management
Team that leads, manages and coordinates the activities within this area.
The underpinning theory
64
Table 2.1 Differences between groups and teams
Group Team or work group
Indeterminate size Restricted in size
Common interests Common overarching objectives
Sense of being part of something or Interaction between members to
seen as being part of something accomplish individual and group goals
Interdependent as much as Interdependency between members to
individuals might wish to be accomplish individual and group goals
May have no responsibilities other Shared responsibilities
than a sense of belonging to
the group
May have no accountabilities Individual accountabilities
other than ‘contractual’ ones
A group does not necessarily have The team works together, physically or
any work to do or goals to virtually
accomplish

The team members work together on common goals, meet regularly and
have clearly defined roles and responsibilities (usually).
Perhaps the senior management team has decreed that all the high
potential managers in the organization shall be members of the Strategic
Management Group. So the Finance Controller, who is on the high poten-
tial list, gets together with others at his or her level to form a collection of
individuals who contribute to the overall strategic direction of the organi-
zation. Apart from gatherings every six months, this group rarely meets or
communicates. It is a grouping, which might be bounded but does not have
any ongoing goals or objectives that require members to work together.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 2.1 Within your working life, what teams are you a member of and to
which groups do you belong?
Q 2.2 Within your personal life, what teams are you a member of and to
which groups do you belong?
Q 2.3 In what ways was it easier to answer in your personal life, and in
what ways more difficult?
WHY WE NEED TEAMS
Why do we need teams and team
working? Casey (1993) from Ashridge
Management College researched this
question by asking a simple question of
each team he worked with: ‘Why
should you work together as a team?’ The simplest answer is, ‘Because of
the work we need to accomplish.’ Team work may be needed because
there is a high volume of interconnected pieces of work, or because the
work is too complex to be understood and worked on by one person.
What about managers? Do they need to operate as teams, or can they
operate effectively as groups? The Ashridge-based writers say that a
management team does not necessarily have to be fully integrated as a
team all of the time. Nor should it be reduced to a mere collection of indi-
viduals going about their own individual functional tasks.
Team change
65

Casey believes that there is a clear link between the level of uncertainty
of the task being handled and the level of team work needed. The greater
the uncertainty is, the greater the need for team work. The majority of
management teams deal with both uncertain and certain tasks, so need to
be flexible about the levels of team working required. Decisions about
health and safety, HR policy, reporting processes and recruitment are
relatively certain, so can be handled fairly quickly without a need for
much sharing of points of view. There is usually a right answer to these
issues, whereas decisions about strategy, structure and culture are less
certain. There is no right answer, and each course of action involves
taking a risk. This means more team working, more sharing of points of
view, and a real understanding of what is being agreed and what the
implications are for the team.
THE TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL TEAMS
Robert Keidal (1984) identified a parallel between sports teams and orga-
nizational teams. He uses baseball, American football and basketball
teams to show the differences.
A baseball team is like a sales organization. Team members are rela-
tively independent of one another, and while all members are required to
be on the field together, they virtually never interact together all at the
same time.
Football is quite different. There are really three subteams within the
total team: offence, defence, and the special team. When the subteam
is on the field, every player is involved in every play, which is not the
case in baseball. But the team work is centred in the subteam, not the
total team.
Basketball is a different breed. Here the team is small, with all players
in only one team. Every player is involved in all aspects of the game,
offence and defence, and all must pass, run, shoot. When a substitute
comes in, all must play with the new person.
Many different types of team exist within organizations. Let us look at a
range of types of team found in today ’s organizations (see Table 2.2).
The underpinning theory
66

Team change
67
Table 2.2 Types of team
Team Group Work Parallel Project
Continuity Variable Stable Stable or Focused on
one-off project project
achievement
Lifespan Variable Unlimited Variable Time limited
Organizational Can be part Part of Outside of Separate
links of the formal management normal management
and/or structure management structure
informal structure
organization
Led by Dependent One manager Normally Project
on nature or supervisor coordinated manager
and purpose or facilitated
of group
Location Variable Co-located Converge for Co-located,
meetings dispersed,
virtual
Purpose Variable Business as Maintenance Change or
usual function or development
part of
change
infrastructure
Authority Dependent Through the Depends Via project
on nature line manager and
and purpose project
of group sponsor
Focus Communication Task Communication Task

Work team
Work teams or work groups are typically the type of team that most
people within organizations will think of when we talk about teams. They
are usually part of the normal hierarchical structure of an organization.
This means that one person manages a group of individuals. That person
The underpinning theory
68
Table 2.2 continued
Team Matrix Virtual Network Management Change
Continuity Stable as a Potential Potential Stable Fluid
structure fluid fluid
but fluid
by project
Lifespan Unlimited Variable Variable Unlimited Variable
Organi- Part of Can be More Part of Variable
zational management part of the distributed management
links structure management across the structure
Dual structure organization
accountability
Led by Project One Potentially One manager Sponsor or
manager and manager or distributed change
functional supervisor leadership or manager
head coordination
Location Co-located, Dispersed Dispersed Often Co-located,
dispersed, co-located dispersed,
virtual virtual
Purpose Project BAU or Change or Business as Change and
achievement Project development usual development
Change and
development
Authority Dual Through the Depends Through the Via project
accountability line or line manager and
project project
manager sponsor
Focus Task Task Communi- Task and Task and
cation communi- communi-
cation cation

is responsible for delivering a particular product or service either to the
customer or to another part of the organization.
These teams tend to be relatively stable in terms of team objectives,
processes and personnel. Their agenda is normally focused on maintenance
and management of what is. This is a combination of existing processes and
operational strategy. Any change agenda that they have is usually on top of
their existing agenda of meeting the current operating plan.
Self-managed team
A sub-set of the work team is the self-managed team. The self-managed
team has the attributes of the work team but without a direct manager or
supervisor. This affects the way decisions are made and the way in which
individual and team performance is managed. Generally this is through
collective or distributed leadership.
Self-managed work teams are more prevalent in manufacturing indus-
tries rather than the service arena. Once again there is an emphasis on
delivery of service or product rather than delivering change.
Parallel team
Parallel teams are different from work teams because they are not part of
the traditional management hierarchy. They are run in tandem or parallel
to this structure. Examples of parallel teams are:
• teams brought together to deliver quality improvement (for example,
quality circles, continuous improvement groups);
• teams that have some problem-solving or decision-making input,
other than the normal line management processes (for example,
creativity and innovation groups);
• teams formed to involve and engage employees (for example, staff
councils, diagonal slice groups);
• teams set up for a specific purpose such as a task force looking at an
office move.
These teams have variable longevity, and are used for purposes that tend
to be other than the normal ‘business as usual’ management. They are
Team change
69

often of a consultative nature, carrying limited authority. Although not
necessarily responsible or accountable for delivering changes, they often
feed into a change management process.
Project team
Project teams are teams that are formed for the specific purpose of
completing a project. They therefore are time limited, and we would
expect to find clarity of objectives. The project might be focused on an
external client or it might be an internal one-off, or cross-cutting project
with an internal client group.
Depending on the scale of the project the team might comprise individ-
uals on a full or part-time basis. Typically there is a project manager,
selected for his or her specialist or managerial skills, and a project sponsor.
Individuals report to the project manager for the duration of the project
(although if they work part-time on the project they might also be
reporting to a line manager). The project manager reports to the project
sponsor, who typically is a senior manager.
We know the project team has been successful when it delivers the
specific project on time, to quality and within budget. Brown and
Eisenhardt (1995) noted that cross-functional teams, which are teams
comprised of individuals from a range of organizational functions, were
found to enhance project success.
Project teams are very much associated with implementing change.
However, although change may be their very raison d’être it does not
necessarily mean that their members’ ability to handle change is any
different from the rest of us. Indeed built into their structure are potential
dysfunctionalities:
• The importance of task achievement often reigns supreme, at the
expense of investing time in meeting individual and team mainte-
nance needs.
• The fact that individuals have increased uncertainty concerning their
future can impact on motivation and performance.
• The dynamic at play between the project team and the organizational
area into which the change will take place can be problematic.
The underpinning theory
70

Matrix team
Matrix teams generally occur in organizations that are run along project
lines. The organization typically has to deliver a number of projects to
achieve its objectives. Each project has a project manager, but the project
team members are drawn from functional areas of the organization.
Often projects are clustered together to form programmes, or indeed
whole divisions or business units (for example, aerospace, defence or oil
industry projects). Thus the team members have accountability both to
the project manager and to their functional head. The balance of power
between the projects and the functions varies from organization to orga-
nization, and the success of such structures often depends on the degree
to which the project teams are enabled by the structure and the degree to
which they are disabled.
Virtual team
Increasing globalization and developments in the use of new technolo-
gies mean that teams are not necessarily co-located any more. This has
been true for many years for sales teams. Virtual teams either never meet
or they meet only rarely. Townsend, DeMarie and Hendrickson (1998)
defined virtual teams as ‘groups of geographically and/or organization-
ally dispersed coworkers that are assembled using a combination of
telecommunications and information technologies to accomplish an orga-
nizational task’. An advantage of virtual teams is that an organization can
use the most appropriately skilled people for the task, wherever they are
located. In larger companies the probability that the necessary and
desired expertise for any sophisticated or complex task is in the same
place geographically is low.
Disadvantages spring from the distance between team members.
Virtual teams cross time zones, countries, continents and cultures. All
these things create their own set of challenges. Current research suggests
that synchronous working (being face to face or remote) is more effective
in meeting more complex challenges. Team leadership for virtual teams
also creates its own issues, with both day-to-day management tasks and
developmental interventions being somewhat harder from a distance.
When it comes to change, virtual teams are somewhat paradoxical. Team
members can perhaps be more responsive, balancing autonomy and inter-
dependence, and more focused on their part of the team objective.
Team change
71

However change creates an increased need for communication, clear
goals, defined roles and responsibilities, and support and recognition
processes. These things are more difficult to manage in the virtual world.
Networked team
National, international and global organizations can use networked
teams in an attempt to add a greater cohesion to their organization, which
would not otherwise be there. Additionally they may wish to capture
learning in one part of the organization and spread it across the whole
organization.
We might have grouped virtual and networked teams under the same
category. However we could think of the networked team as being similar
to a parallel team, in the sense that its primary purpose is not business as
usual, but part of an attempt by the organization to increase sustainability
and build capacity through increasing the reservoir of knowledge across
the whole organization.
Networked teams are an important anchor for organizations in times of
change. They can be seen as part of the glue that gives a sense of cohesion
to people within the organization.
Management team
Management teams coordinate and provide direction to the sub-units under
their jurisdiction, laterally integrating interdependent sub-units across key
business processes.
(Mohrman, Cohen and Mohrman, 1995)
The management team is ultimately responsible for the overall perfor-
mance of the business unit. In itself it may not deliver any product,
service or project, but clearly its function is to enable that delivery.
Management teams are pivotal in translating the organization’s overar-
ching goals into specific objectives for the various sub-units to do their
share of the organization task.
Management teams are similar to work teams in terms of delivery of
current operational plan, but are much more likely to be in a position of
designing and delivering change as well. We expect a more senior
management team to spend less time on business-as-usual matters and
more time on the change agenda.
The underpinning theory
72

The senior management team in any organization is the team most
likely to be held responsible for the organization’s ultimate success or
failure. It is in a pivotal position within the organization. On the one hand
it is at the top of the organization, and therefore team members have a
collective leadership responsibility. On the other hand it is accountable to
the non-executive board and shareholders in limited companies, or to
politicians in local and central government, or to trustees in not-for-profit
organizations. Along with the change team (see below) the management
team has a particular role to play within most change scenarios, for it is its
members who initiate and manage the implementation of change.
Change team
Change teams are often formed within organizations when a planned or
unplanned change of significant proportions is necessary. We have sepa-
rated out this type of team because of its special significance. Sometimes
the senior management team is called the change team, responsible for
directing and sponsoring the changes. Sometimes the change team is a
special project team set up to implement change. At other times the
change team is a parallel team, set up to tap into the organization and be
a conduit for feedback as to how the changes are being received.
Obviously different organizations have different terminologies, so
what in one organization is called a project team delivering a change will
be a change team delivering a project in another organization.
More and more organizations also realize that the management of
change is more likely to succeed if attention is given to the people side of
change. Hence a parallel team drawn from representatives of the whole
workforce can be a useful adjunct in terms of assessing and responding to
the impact of the changes on people.
We see the change team as an important starting point in the change
process.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 2.4 Of the teams of which you are a member, which are more suitable
to lead change and which more suitable to implement change?
Justify your answer.
Team change
73

HOW TO IMPROVE TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
Rollin and Christine Glaser (1992) have identified five elements that
contribute to the level of a team’s effectiveness or ineffectiveness over
time. They are:
• team mission, planning and goal setting;
• team roles;
• team operating processes;
• team interpersonal relationships; and
• inter-team relations.
If you can assess where a team is in terms of its ability to address these
five elements, you will discover what the team needs to do to develop
into a fully functioning team.
Team mission planning and goal setting
A number of studies have found that the most effective teams have a
strong sense of their purpose, organize their work around that purpose,
and plan and set goals in line with that purpose. Larson and LaFasto
(1989) report, ‘in every case, without exception, when an effectively func-
tioning team was identified, it was described by the respondent as having
a clear understanding of its objective’.
Clarity of objectives together with a common understanding and agree-
ment of these was seen to be key. In addition Locke and Latham (1984)
report that the very act of goal setting was a prime motivator for the team;
the more your team sets clear goals the more likely it is to succeed. They
also reported a 16 per cent average improvement in effectiveness for teams
that use goal setting as an integral part of team activities.
Clear goals are even more important when teams are involved in
change, partly because unless they know where they are going they are
unlikely to get there, and partly because a strong sense of purpose can
mitigate some of the more harmful effects of change. The downside
occurs when a team rigidly adheres to its purpose when in fact the world
has moved on and other objectives are more appropriate.
The underpinning theory
74

Team roles
The best way for a team to achieve its goals is for the team to be structured
logically around those goals. Individual team members need to have clear
roles and accountabilities. They need to have a clear understanding not
only of what their individual role is, but also what the roles and account-
abilities of other team members are.
When change happens – within, to or by the team – clarity around role
has two useful functions. It provides a clear sense of purpose and it provides
a supportive framework for task accomplishment. However, during change
the situation becomes more fluid. Too much rigidity results in tasks falling
down the gaps between roles, or overlaps going unnoticed. It might result
in team members being less innovative or proactive or courageous.
Team operating processes
A team needs to have certain enabling processes in place for people to
carry out their work together. Certain things need to be in place that will
allow the task to be achieved in a way that is as efficient and as effective
as possible. Glaser and Glaser (1992) comment, ‘both participation in all of
the processes of the work group and the development of a collaborative
approach are at the heart of effective group work. Because of the tradition
of autocratic leadership, neither participation nor collaboration are
natural or automatic processes. Both require some learning and practice.’
Typical areas that a team need actively to address by discussing and
agreeing include:
• frequency, timing and agenda of meetings;
• problem-solving and decision-making methodologies;
• groundrules;
• procedures for dealing with conflict when it occurs;
• reward mechanisms for individuals contributing to team goals;
• type and style of review process.
In the turbulence created by change all these areas will come under addi-
tional stress and strain, hence the need for processes to have been
discussed and agreed at an earlier stage. During times of change when
Team change
75

typically pressures and priorities can push people into silo mentality and
away from the team, the team operating processes can act like a lubricant,
enabling healthy team functioning to continue.
Team interpersonal relationships
The team members must actively communicate among themselves. To
achieve clear understanding of goals and roles, the team needs to work
together to agree and clarify them. Operating processes must also be
discussed and agreed.
To achieve this level of communication, the interpersonal relationships
within the team need to be in a relatively healthy state. Glaser and Glaser
(1992) found that the literature on team effectiveness ‘prescribes open
communication that is assertive and task focused, as well as creating
opportunities for giving and receiving feedback aimed at the develop-
ment of a high trust climate’.
In times of change, individual stress levels rise and there is a tendency
to focus more on the task than the people processes. High levels of trust
within a team are the bedrock for coping with conflict.
Inter-team relations
Teams cannot work in isolation with any real hope of achieving their
organizational objectives. The nature of organizations today – complex,
sophisticated and with increasing loose and permeable boundaries –
creates situations where a team’s goals can rarely be achieved without
input from and output to others.
However smart a team has been in
addressing the previous four categories, the
authors have found in consulting with
numerous organizations that attention
needs to be paid to inter-team relations now
more than ever before. This is because of the
rise of strategic partnerships and global
organizations. Teams need to connect more.
It is also because the environment is
changing faster and is more complex, so
keeping in touch with information outside
of your own team is a basic survival strategy.
The underpinning theory
76

77
Table 2.3 Effective and ineffective teams
Element Team mission, Team roles Team Team Inter-team
planning and operating interpersonal relations
goal setting processes relationships
Outcome
Team more Clarity of goals Clear roles and Problem solving Open data flow Working
effective, and clear responsibilities and decision and high levels across
adaptive direction lead to increase making are of team boundaries
and greater task individual smoother and working leading ensures that
change accomplishment accountability faster. to task organizational
oriented and increased and allow Processes accomplishment goals are more
motivation others to work enable task in a supportive likely to be
at their tasks accomplishment environment achieved
without undue
conflict
Team less Lack of purpose Unclear roles Unclear Dysfunctional Teams
effective, and unclear and operating team working working in
less goals result in responsibilities processes causes tensions, isolation or
adaptive dissipation of lead to increase time conflict, stress against other
and energy and increased and effort and insufficient teams reduce
change effort conflict and needed to focus on task the likelihood
oriented reduced progress task accomplishment of organizational
accountability achievement goal
achievement

STOP AND THINK!
Q 2.5 Using the five elements above, what is your current team
effectiveness?
Q 2.6 What needs to change, and how would you go about it?
WHAT TEAM CHANGE LOOKS LIKE
All teams go through a change process when they are first formed, and
when significant events occur such as a new member arriving, a key
member leaving, a change of scope, increased pressure from outside, or a
change in organizational climate.
Tuckman (1965) is one of the most widely quoted of researchers into the
linear model of team development. His work is regularly used in team
building within organizations. Most people will have heard of it as the
‘forming, storming, norming, performing’ model of team development. His
basic premise is that any team will undergo distinct stages of development
as it works or struggles towards effective team functioning. Although we
will describe Tuckman’s model in some detail, we have selected a range of
models to illustrate the team development process, as indicated in Table 2.4.
Tuckman’s model of team change
Forming
Forming is the first stage. This involves
the team asking a set of fundamental
questions:
• What is our primary purpose?
• How do we structure ourselves as a team to achieve our purpose?
• What roles do we each have?
• Who is the leader?
• How will we work together?
• How will we relate together?
• What are the boundaries of the team?
The underpinning theory
78

79
Table 2.4 Key attributes in the stages of team development
Tuckman Forming Storming Norming Performing
(1965) Attempt at establishing Arising and dealing of Settling down of team Team is now ready and
primary purpose, structure, conflicts surrounding key dynamic and stepping enabled to focus primarily
roles, leader, task and questions from forming into team norms and on its task while attending
process relationships, and stage agreed ways of working to individual and team
boundaries of the team maintenance needs
Schutz In or out Top or bottom Near or far
(1982) Members decide whether they are Focus on who has power and Finding levels of commitment and
part of the team or not authority within the team engagement within their roles
Modlin Structuralism Unrest Change Integration
and Faris Attempt to recreate Attempt to resolve power Roles emerge based on Team purpose and structure
(1956) previous power within and interpersonal issues task and people needs emerge and accepted,
new team structures Sense of team emerges action towards team goals
Whittaker Preaffiliation Power and control Intimacy Differentiation
(1970) Sense of unease, unsure of Focus on who has power Team begins to commit to Ability to be clear about
team engagement, which is and authority within the task and engage with one individual roles and
superficial team another interactions become
Attempt to define roles workmanlike
Hill and Orientation Exploration Production
Gruner Structure sought Exploration around team roles and Clarity of team roles and team
(1973) relations cohesion
Bion Dependency Fight or flight Pairing
(1961) Team members invest the leaders Team members challenge the leaders Team members form pairings in an
with all the power and authority or other members attempt to resolve their anxieties
Team members withdraw
Scott Peck Pseudocommunity Chaos Emptiness Community
(1990) Members try to fake Attempt to establish Giving up of expectations, Acceptance of each other
teamliness pecking order and team assumptions and hope of and focus on the task
norms achieving anything

The underpinning theory
80
If we were to take a logical rational view of the team we could imagine
that this could all be accomplished relatively easily and relatively
painlessly. And sometimes, on short projects with less than five team
members, it is. However human beings are not completely logical rational
creatures, and sometimes this process is difficult. We all have emotions,
personalities, unique characteristics and personal motivations.
As we saw when we were exploring individual change, human beings
react to change in different ways. And the formation of a new team is
about individuals adjusting to change in their own individual ways.
Initially the questions may be answered in rather a superficial fashion.
The primary task of the team might be that which was written down in a
memo from the departmental head, along with the structure they first
thought of. The leader might typically have been appointed beforehand
and ‘imposed’ upon the team. Individuals’ roles are agreed to in an initial
and individual cursory meeting with the team leader.
The team may agree to relate via a set of groundrules using words that
nobody could possibly object to, but nobody knows what they really
mean in practice: ‘be honest’, ‘team before self ’, ‘have fun’, and so on.
Storming
Tuckman’s next stage is storming. This is a description of the dynamic that
occurs when a team of individuals come together to work on a common
task, and have passed through the phase of being nice to one another and
not voicing their individual concerns. This dynamic occurs as the team
strives or struggles to answer fully the questions postulated in the
forming stage.
Statements articulated (or left unsaid) in some fashion or form might
include ones such as:
• I don’t think we should be aiming for that.
• This structure hasn’t taken account of this.
• There are rather a lot of grey areas in our individual accountabilities.
• Why was he appointed as team leader when he hasn’t done this
before?
• I don’t know whether I can work productively with these people.

• How can we achieve our goals without the support from others in
the organization?
An alternative word to storming is ‘testing’. Individuals and the team as a
whole are testing out the assumptions that had been made when the team
was originally formed. Obviously different teams will experience this stage
with different degrees of intensity, but important points to note here are:
• It is a natural part of the process.
• It is a healthy part of the process.
• It is an important part of the process.
The storming phase – if successfully traversed – will achieve clarity around
all the fundamental questions of the first phase, and enable common under-
standing of purpose and roles to be achieved. In turn it allows the authority
of the team leader to be seen and acknowledged, and it allows everyone to
take up his or her rightful place within the team. It also gives team members
a sense of the way things will happen within the team. It becomes a template
for future ways of acting, problem solving, decision making and relating.
Norming
The third stage of team development occurs when the team finally settles
down into working towards achievement of its task without too much
attention needed on the fundamental questions. As further challenges
develop, or as individuals grow further into their roles, then further
scrutiny of the fundamental questions may happen. They may be
discussed, but if they instead remain hidden beneath the surface this can
result in loss of attention on the primary task.
Tuckman suggests in his review of the research that this settling process
can be relatively straightforward and sequential. The team moves
through the storming phase into a way of working that establishes team
norms. It can also be more sporadic and turbulent, with the team needing
further storming before team norms are established. Indeed some readers
might have experienced teams that permanently move back and forth
between the norming and storming stages – a clear signal that some team
issues are not being surfaced and dealt with.
Team change
81

Performing
The final stage of team development is performing. The team has success-
fully traversed the three previous stages and therefore has clarity around
its purpose, its structure and its roles. It has engaged in a rigorous process
of working out how it should work and relate together, and is comfortable
with the team norms it has established. Not only has the team worked
these things through, but it has embodied them as a way of working. It has
developed a capacity to change and develop, and has learnt how to learn.
The team can quite fruitfully get on with the task in hand and attend to
individual and team needs at the same time.
Adjourning
A fifth stage was later added which acknowledged that teams do not last
for ever. This stage represents the period when the team’s task has been
completed and team members disperse. Some practitioners call this stage
mourning, highlighting the emotional component. Others call it trans-
forming as team members develop other ways of working.
THE LEADERSHIP ISSUES IN TEAM CHANGE
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
Ralph Stacey, in his book Strategic Management and Organisational
Dynamics (1993), describes what happens when a group is brought
together to study the experience of being in a group, without any further
task and without an appointed leader. Known as a Group Relations
Conference and run by the Tavistock Institute in London, this process
involves a consultant who forms part of the group to offer views on the
group process but otherwise takes no conscious part in the activity. This:
always provokes high levels of anxiety in the participants… which… find
expression in all manner of strange behaviours. Group discussions take on a
manic form with asinine comments and hysterical laughter… the participants
attack the visiting consultant… becoming incredibly rude…
Members try to replace the non-functioning consultant… but they rarely
seem to be successful in this endeavour. They begin to pick on an individual,
The underpinning theory
82

usually some highly individualistic or minority member of the group, and then
treat this person as some kind of scapegoat. They all become very concerned
with remaining part of the group, greatly fearing exclusion. They show strong
tendencies to conform to rapidly established group norms and suppress their
individual differences, perhaps they are afraid of becoming the scapegoat… the
one thing they hardly do at all is to examine the behaviour they are indulging
in, the task they have actually been given.
The situation described in the box offers a way of exploring some of the
unconscious group processes that are at work just below the surface.
These are not always visible in more conventional team situations. The
work of Bion (1961) and Scott Peck (1990) is useful to illuminate the
phases that groups go through and highlight the challenges for leaders.
Moving through dependency
In any team formation the first thing people look for is someone to tell
them what to do. This is a perfectly natural phenomenon, given that
many people will want to get on with the task and many people will
believe someone else knows what the task is and how it should be done.
In any unfamiliar situation or environment people can become depen-
dent. Jon Stokes (in Obholzer and Roberts, 1994) describes what Bion
observed in his experience with groups and called basic group assumptions:
a group dominated by basic assumption of dependency behaves as if its
primary task is solely to provide for the satisfaction of the needs and wishes
of its members. The leader is expected to look after, protect and sustain the
members of the group, to make them feel good, and not to face them with
the demands of the group’s real purpose.
The job of the leader, and indeed the group, is not only to establish lead-
ership credibility and accountability but to establish its limits. This will
imbue the rest of the team with sufficient power for them to accomplish
their tasks. The leader can do this by modelling the taking of individual
responsibility and empowering others to do the same, and by ensuring
that people are oriented in the right direction and have a common under-
standing of team purpose and objectives.
Team change
83

Moving through conflict
Bion’s second assumption is labelled fight or flight. Bion (1961) says:
There is a danger or ‘enemy’, which should either be attacked or fled from…
members look to the leader to devise some appropriate action… for
instance, instead of considering how best to organize its work, a team may
spend most of the time worrying about rumours of organizational change.
This provides a sense of togetherness, whilst also serving to avoid facing the
difficulties of the work itself. Alternatively, such a group may spend its time
protesting angrily, without actually planning any specific action to deal with
the perceived threat.
The threat might not necessarily be coming from outside, but instead
might be an externalization – or projection – from the team. The real
threat is from within, and the potential for conflict is between the leader
and the rest of the team, and between team members themselves. Issues
around power and authority and where people sit in the ‘pecking order ’
may surface at this stage.
The leadership task here is to surface any of these dynamics and work
them through, either by the building of trust and the frank, open and
honest exchange of views, or by seeking clarity and gaining agreement on
roles and responsibilities.
Moving towards creativity
The third assumption that Bion explored was that of pairing. This is:
based on the collective and unconscious belief that, whatever the actual
problems and needs of the group, a future event will solve them. The group
behaves as if pairing or coupling between two members within the group, or
perhaps between the leaders of the group and some external person, will
bring about salvation… the group is in fact not interested in working practi-
cally towards this future, but only sustaining a vague sense of hope as a way
out of its current difficulties… members are inevitably left with a sense of
disappointment and failure, which is quickly superseded by a hope that the
next meeting will be better.
Once again there is a preoccupation. This time it is about creating some-
thing new, but in a fantasized or unreal way, as a defence against doing
anything practical or actually performing. The antidote of course is for the
The underpinning theory
84

leader to encourage the team members to continue in their endeavours
and to take personal responsibility for moving things on. Collaborative
working requires greater openness of communication and data flow.
Moving through cohesion and cosiness
Turquet (1974) has added a fourth assumption, labelled oneness. This is
where the team seems to believe it has come together almost for a higher
purpose, or with a higher force, so the members can lose themselves in a
sense of complete unity.
There are parallels to the stage of performing, but somehow, once
again, the team has fallen into an unconscious detraction from the
primary task in hand. Attainment of a sense of oneness, cohesiveness or
indeed cosiness is not the purpose the team set out to achieve. Good and
close team working is often essential and can be individually satisfying,
but it is not the purpose. Too much focus on team cohesion can lead to
abdication from the task, and is only a stage on the way to full team
working. The goal is interdependent working co-existing with collabora-
tive problem solving. This requires the leader to set the scene and the
pace, and team members to act with maturity.
See Chapter 4 for more ideas on leading change.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 2.7 Imagine that you are one of a team of five GPs working at a local
practice. You want to initiate some changes in the way the team
approaches non-traditional medical approaches such as coun-
selling, homeopathy and osteopathy. The GPs meet monthly for
one hour to discuss finances and review medical updates. They
do not really know each other well or work together on patient
care. There is no real team leader, although the Practice Manager
takes the lead when the group discusses administration.
Using one of the models of team development described above,
explain how you could lead the team towards a new way of
working together. What obstacles to progress do you predict, and
how might you deal with them?
Team change
85

HOW INDIVIDUALS AFFECT TEAM DYNAMICS
Here we use the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator™ to see how individual
personalities might influence and be influenced by the team. We also use
Meredith Belbin’s (1981) research into team types to indicate what types
of individuals best make up an effective team.
MBTI™ and teams
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator™ suggests that if you are a particular
type you have particular preferences and are different from other people
of different types (see Table 1.5 for MBTI™ types). This means that when
The underpinning theory
86
‘If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it’ ‘Let’s think ahead’
‘Let’s just do it’ ‘Let’s change it’

it comes to change, people with different preferences react differently to
change, both when they initiate it and when they are on the receiving
end of it. This is also true when you are a member of a team. Different
people will bring their individual preferences to the table and behave in
differing ways.
When undergoing team change, individual team members will typically
react in one of four ways (see illustrations above):
• Some will want to ascertain the difference between what should be
preserved and what could be changed. There will be things they
want to keep.
• Some will think long and hard about the changes that will emerge
internally from their visions of the future. They will be intent on
thinking about the changes differently.
• Some will be keen to move things on by getting things to run more
effectively and efficiently. They will be most interested in doing
things now.
• Some will be particularly inventive and want to try something
different or novel. They will be all for changing things.
The use of MBTI™, or any other personality-profiling instrument, can
have specific benefits when teams are experiencing or managing change.
It can identify where individuals and the team itself might have
strengths to be capitalized on, and where it might have weaknesses that
need to be supported.
Behaviours exhibited by team members will run ‘true to type’, and thus
knowing your preferences and those of the rest of the team will help aid
understanding. It is also true that different team tasks might be suitable
for different types – either because they are best matched or because it
provides a development opportunity. Surfacing differences helps individ-
uals see things from the other person’s perspective, and adds to the effec-
tive use of diversity within the team.
Researching in the health care industry, Mary McCaulley (1975) made
the point that similarity and difference within teams can have both
advantages and disadvantages:
Team change
87

• The more similar the team members are, the sooner they will reach
common understanding.
• The more disparate the team members, the longer it takes for under-
standing to occur.
• The more similar the team members, the quicker the decision will be
made, but the greater the possibility of error through exclusion of
some possibilities.
• The more disparate the team members, the longer the decision-
making process will be, but the more views and opinions will be taken
into account.
McCaulley also recognized that teams valuing different types can ulti-
mately experience less conflict.
A particular case worth mentioning is the management team.
Management teams both in the United States and the United Kingdom
are skewed from the natural distribution of Myers-Briggs types within the
whole population. Typically they are composed of fewer people of the
feeling types and fewer people of the perceiving types. This means that
management teams, when making decisions around change, are more
likely to put emphasis on the business case for change, and less likely to
think or worry about the effect on people. You can see the result of this in
most change programmes in most organizations. They are also more
likely to want to close things down, having made a decision, rather than
keep their options open – thus excluding the possibility of enhancing and
improving on the changes or responding to feedback.
There are some simple reminders of the advantages and disadvantages
of the preferences for teams making decisions about managing change
within organizations, as listed in Table 2.5.
Belbin’s team types
What people characteristics need to be present for a team to function
effectively? Meredith Belbin (1981) has been researching this question
for a number of years. The purpose of his research was to see whether
high and low performing teams had certain characteristics. He looked at
team members and found that in the higher performing teams,
The underpinning theory
88

members played a role or number of roles. Any teams without members
playing one of these roles would be more likely to perform at a lower
level of effectiveness. Of course different situations require certain
different emphases.
He identified the following roles (see Table 2.6) with their contributions
and allowable weaknesses.
Team change
89
Table 2.5 Complementarity and conflict in teams
Extraversion Introversion
Needed to raise energy, Where Needed for thinking things
show enthusiasm, make individuals through and depth of
contacts and take action. draw their understanding.
But they can appear energy from But can appear withdrawn,
superficial, intrusive cold and aloof.
and overwhelming.
Sensing Intuition
Needed to base ideas What an Needed to prepare for the
firmly in reality and be individual pays future and generate
practical and pragmatic. attention to or innovative solutions.
Can appear rather how he/she Can appear to have head
mundane and pessimistic. receives data in the clouds, impractical
and information and implausible.
Thinking Feeling
Needed to balance benefits How an Needed to be in touch with
against the costs and individual emotional intelligence, to
make tough decisions. makes negotiate and to reconcile.
Can appear rather critical decisions Can appear irrational and
and insensitive. too emotional.
Judging Perceiving
Needed for his/her What sort of Needed for his/her
organization and ability to lifestyle an flexibility, adaptability and
complete things and see individual information gathering.
them through. enjoys Can appear rather
Can appear overly rigid unorganized and
and immovable. somewhat irresponsible.

The underpinning theory
90
Table 2.6 Belbin team-role summary sheet
Team-Role Descriptions
Contribution Allowable Weakness
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STOP AND THINK!
Q 2.8 What team role(s) are you likely to use?
Q 2.9 What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of the
eight roles?
Belbin concluded that if teams were formed with individuals’ preferences
and working styles in mind, they would have a better chance of team
cohesion and work-related goal achievement. Teams need to contain a
good spread of Belbin team types.
Different teams might need different combinations of roles. Marketing
and design teams probably need more Plants, while project implementa-
tion teams need Implementers and Completer Finishers. Likewise, the
lack of a particular team type can be an issue. A management team
without a Co-ordinator or Shaper would have problems. An implementa-
tion team without a Complete Finisher might also struggle.
HOW WELL TEAMS INITIATE AND ADAPT TO
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Throughout the last decades of the 20th century many organizations
repeated the mantra, ‘people are our greatest assets’, and many would
then apologize profusely when they were forced into downsizing or
‘rightsizing’ the workforce. Similarly many organizations have sung the
praises of teams and how essential they are within the modern organiza-
tion. Many organizations have sets of competences or stated values that
implicitly and explicitly pronounce that their employees need to work in
the spirit of team work and partnership.
It was therefore interesting for the authors to discover that there was a
real lack of any authoritative research on the interplay between organiza-
tional change and team working. We have seen in a previous chapter the
effect that change has on individuals and groups of individuals; but what
has not been studied is the effect of change on teams. And as a conse-
quence there is very little research on strategies for managing and leading
teams through organizational change.
Team change
91

Whelan-Berry and Gordon (2000), in their research into effective orga-
nizational change, conducted a multi-level analysis of the organizational
change process. To quote them:
they found no change process models at the group or team level of analysis
in the organization studies and change literature. Literature exists which
explores different aspects of team or group development, team or group
effectiveness, implementation of specific interventions, and organizational
and individual aspects of the change, but not a group/team change process
model… the lack of change process models for the team or group level
change process in the context of organizational change leaves a major
portion of the organizational change process unclear.
They continue:
The primary focus of existing organizational change models is what to do as
opposed to explaining or predicting the change process. Most of the models
implicitly, and a few explicitly, acknowledge, the inherent (sub) processes of
group level and individual level change, but do not include the details of these
processes in the model. The question is how does the change process vary
when considered across levels of analysis? For example, how does a vision get
‘translated,’ that is, take on meaning, in each location or department? In addi-
tion, what happens at the point of implementation? We must ‘double click’ at
the point of implementation in the organizational level change process; that is,
we must look at the group and individual levels and their respective change
processes to understand the translation and implementation of the organiza-
tional level change vision and desired change outcomes to group and subse-
quently to individual meanings, frameworks, and behaviours.
Table 2.7 examines each type of team
previously identified, and looks at the
way in which this type of team can
impact or react to organizational
change. We also look at the pros and
cons of each team type when involved
in an organizational change process.
Team development processes are
disturbed in times of change. An external event can shift a performing
team back into the storming stage. Only teams that are quite remote from
the changes can simply incorporate a new scope or a new set of values
and remain relatively untouched.
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92

93
Table 2.7 Teams going through change
Team type Group Work Parallel Project Matrix
Propensity to Dependent Limited Limited in terms Potentially high Fair given
initiate on nature and of organizational depending on propensity to
change composition impact integration into address change
of group organization
Propensity to Dependent on Dependent on Dependent on Theoretically high. Dependent on
adapt to purpose and team members purpose and team Good for limited degree of
change composition and team culture members changes in scope enabling or
of group but not total disabling structure
Advantages Difficult to Good at Good for pilot Good focus for specific Flexible, so good
during get alignment implementation schemes implementation goals for initiating ideas
change once it is clear
Disadvantages Useful for Does not like Can become alienated Not good for Leadership
during coming up change too often through failure, or tackling complex sometimes not
change with out-of- through boasting topics such as clear, so discussion
the-box ideas about success values or leadership can go on for ever
Advice for Good for Need to involve Useful for starting Good for short-range Good for
leaders initiating ideas the leaders or things up and tasks such as appointing initiating ideas
and spreading shapers of these proving an idea. consultants or researching and spreading
the word teams early – Do not let members techniques. Not good for the word
especially if you become too isolated. the complex stuff. Do not
need their Encourage them to be tempted to give
commitment link in with the complex issues like
rather than outside world ‘improve communication’
compliance to a project team

94 Table 2.7 continued
Team type Virtual Network Management Change
Propensity to Limited unless Potentially large Theoretically and practically Raison d’être
initiate change project specific depending on nature and high. Typically should be the
composition of group team that initiates change
Propensity to Dependent on Dependent on purpose Theoretically and practically high. Theoretically and
adapt to change purpose and team and team members Sometimes will have difficulty practically high
members adapting to others’ change
Advantages Brings disparate Wide reaching, so good Powerful, so makes an impact Has increased energy
during change groups together for sharing sense of and sense of purpose
if tightly focused purpose and sense of because it was set up
urgency to make change
happen
Disadvantages Lack of cohesion Not good for monitoring Often resistant to changing Not impactful if it
during change means purpose implementation because through lack of time or lack of lacks influence
may be of lack of process and teamwork, so role modelling of (presence of
misunderstood regularity desired changes can be weak. powerful people)
and important Focus on events after the launch
issues are not often poor due to packed agenda
raised and belief that it will all happen
smoothly
Advice for Involve the key virtual Good for Do something surprising yourself Recruit powerful
leaders teams early – especially initiating ideas if you want your management people
the leaders and shapers, and spreading team to change the way it works. Work on alignment
but do not expect them the word Insist on role modelling. Ensure resources
to implement anything Keep your eye on the ball
complicated because there will be problems

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
• Groups and teams are different, with different characteristics and
different reasons for existing.
• Teams are important in organizational life for accomplishing large or
complex tasks.
• Team work is important for management teams when they work on
risky issues that require them to share views and align.
• There are many different types of organizational team, each with
significant benefits and downsides.
• Teams can become more effective by addressing five elements:
– team mission, planning and goal setting;
– team roles;
– team operating processes;
– team interpersonal relationships;
– inter-team relations.
• Teams develop over time. Tuckman’s forming, storming, norming and
performing model is useful for understanding this process.
• The team development process involves different leadership chal-
lenges at each stage.
• Bion’s work highlights four possible pitfalls that need to be worked
through:
– dependency;
– fight or flight;
– pairing;
– cosiness.
• The composition of a team is an important factor in determining how
it can be successful. Belbin says that well-rounded teams are best.
Deficiencies in a certain type can cause problems.
• The Myers-Briggs profile allows mutual understanding of team
member ’s preferences for initiating or adapting to change.
Team change
95

• Belbin’s team types offer a way of analysing a team’s fitness for
purpose and encouraging team members to do something about any
significant gaps.
• Leaders need to be aware of the types of team available during a
change process, and how to manage these most effectively.
Below is a summary checklist of the key questions you need to be asking
and answering before, during and after the change process:
• Where are the teams affected by the change process?
• What types of team are they and how might they respond to change?
• What do they need to be supported through the change process?
• How can we best use them throughout the change process?
• What additional types of team do we need for designing and imple-
menting the changes?
• As all teams go through the transition, what resources shall we offer
to ensure they achieve their objectives of managing business as usual
and the changes?
• How do we ensure that teams that are dispersing, forming, inte-
grating or realigning stay on task?
• What organizational process do we have for ensuring teams are clear
about their:
– mission, planning and goal setting;
– roles and responsibilities
– operating processes;
– interpersonal relationships;
– inter-team relations?
The underpinning theory
96

3
Organizational change
This chapter tackles the issue of organizational change. How does the
process of organizational change happen? Must change be initiated and
driven through by one strong individual? Or can it be planned collectively
by a powerful group of people, and by sheer momentum, the change will
happen? Perhaps there is a more intellectual approach that can be taken.
Are there payoffs to understanding the whole system, determining how to
change it, and predicting where resistance will occur? On the other hand,
maybe change cannot be planned at all. Something unpredictable could
spark a change, which then spreads in a natural way.
This chapter addresses the topic of organizational change in three sections:
• how organizations really work;
• models and approaches to organizational change;
• summary and conclusions.
In the first section we look at assumptions about how organizations work
in terms of the metaphors that are most regularly used to describe them.
This is an important starting point for those who are serious about orga-
nizational change. Once you become aware of the range of assumptions
97

that shape people’s attitudes to and understanding of organizations, you
can take advantage of the possibilities of other ways of looking at things,
and you can begin to understand how other people in your organization
may view the world. You can also begin to see the limitations of each
mindset and the disadvantages of taking a one-dimensional approach to
organizational change.
In the second section, we set out a range of useful models and ideas
developed by some of the most significant writers on organizational
change. This section aims to illustrate the variety of ways in which you
can view the process of organizational change. We also make sense of the
different models and approaches by identifying the assumptions under-
pinning each one. When you understand the assumptions behind a
model, you can start to see its benefits and limitations.
In the third section, we come to some conclusions about organizational
change, and stress the importance of being aware of underlying assump-
tions and having the flexibility to employ a range of different approaches.
HOW ORGANIZATIONS REALLY WORK
We all have our own assumptions about how organizations work, devel-
oped through a combination of experience and education. The use of
metaphor is an important way in which we express these assumptions.
Some people talk about organizations as if they were machines. This
metaphor leads to talk of organizational structures, job design and
process reengineering. Others describe organizations as political systems.
They describe the organization as a seething web of political intrigue
where coalitions are formed and power rules supreme. They talk about
hidden agendas, opposing factions and political manoeuvring.
Gareth Morgan’s (1986) work on organizational metaphors is a good
starting point for understanding the different beliefs and assumptions
about change that exist. He says:
Metaphor gives us the opportunity to stretch our thinking and deepen our
understanding, thereby allowing us to see things in new ways and act in new
ways… Metaphor always creates distortions too… We have to accept that
any theory or perspective that we bring to the study of organization and
management, while capable of creating valuable insights, is also incomplete,
biased, and potentially misleading.
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98

Morgan identifies eight organizational metaphors:
• machines;
• organisms;
• brains;
• cultures;
• political systems;
• psychic prisons;
• flux and transformation;
• instruments of domination.
We have selected four of Morgan’s organizational metaphors to explore
the range of assumptions that exists about how organizational change
works. These are the four that we see in use most often by managers,
writers and consultants, and that appear to us to provide the most useful
insights into the process of organizational change. These are:
• organizations as machines;
• organizations as political systems;
• organizations as organisms;
• organizations as flux and transformation.
Descriptions of these different organizational metaphors appear below.
See also Table 3.1, which sets out how change might be approached using
the four different metaphors. In reality most organizations use combina-
tions of approaches to tackle organizational change, but it is useful to pull
the metaphors apart to see the difference in the activities resulting from
different ways of thinking.
Organizational change
99

MACHINE METAPHOR?
The new organizational structure represents an injection of fresh skills into the
Marketing Function.
Fred Smart will now head up the implementation of the Marketing Plan,
which details specific investment in marketing skills training and IT systems. We
intend to fill the identified skills gaps and to upgrade our customer databases
and market intelligence databank. A focus on following correct marketing
procedures will ensure consistent delivery of well-targeted brochures and
advertising campaigns.
MD, Engineering Company
Organizations as machines
The machine metaphor is a well-used metaphor which is worth revisiting
to examine its implications for organizational change. Gareth Morgan
says, ‘When we think of organizations as machines, we begin to see them
as rational enterprises designed and
structured to achieve predetermined
ends.’ This picture of an organization
implies routine operations, well-
defined structure and job roles, and
efficient working inside and between
the working parts of the machine (the
functional areas). Procedures and stan-
dards are clearly defined, and are
expected to be adhered to.
Many of the principles behind this mode of organizing are deeply
ingrained in our assumptions about how organizations should work. This
links closely into behaviourist views of change and learning (see descrip-
tion of behavioural approach to change in Chapter 1).
The key beliefs are:
• each employee should have only one line manager;
• labour should be divided into specific roles;
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100

• each individual should be managed by objectives;
• teams represent no more than the summation of individual efforts;
• management should control and there should be employee discipline.
This leads to the following assumptions about organizational change:
• The organization can be changed to an agreed end state by those in
positions of authority.
• There will be resistance, and this needs to be managed.
• Change can be executed well if it is well planned and well controlled.
What are the limitations of this metaphor? The mechanistic view leads
managers to design and run the organization as if it were a machine. This
approach works well in stable situations, but when the need for a signifi-
cant change arises, this will be seen and experienced by employees as a
major overhaul which is usually highly disruptive and therefore encoun-
ters resistance. Change when approached with these assumptions is
therefore hard work. It will necessitate strong management action, inspi-
rational vision, and control from the top down.
See the works of Frederick Taylor and Henri Fayol if you wish to
examine further some of the original thinking behind this metaphor.
Organizations as political systems
When we see organizations as political systems we are
drawing clear parallels between how organizations
are run and systems of political rule. We may refer to
‘democracies’, ‘autocracy ’ or even ‘anarchy ’ to
describe what is going on in a particular organization.
Here we are describing the style of power rule
employed in that organization.
The political metaphor is useful because it recognizes
the important role that power play, competing interests
and conflict have in organizational life. Gareth Morgan
comments, ‘Many people hold the belief that business
Organizational change
101

and politics should be kept apart… But the person advocating the case of
employee rights or industrial democracy is not introducing a political
issue so much as arguing for a different approach to a situation that is
already political.’
The key beliefs are:
• You can’t stay out of organizational politics: you’re already in it.
• Building support for your approach is essential if you want to make
anything happen.
• You need to know who is powerful, and who they are close to.
• There is an important political map which overrides the published
organizational structure.
• Coalitions between individuals are more important than work teams.
• The most important decisions in an organization concern the alloca-
tion of scarce resources, that is, who gets what, and these are reached
through bargaining, negotiating and vying for position.
This leads to the following assumptions about organizational change:
• The change will not work unless it’s supported by a powerful person.
• The wider the support for this change the better.
• It is important to understand the political map, and to understand
who will be winners and losers as a result of this change.
• Positive strategies include creating new coalitions and renegotiating
issues.
What are the limitations of this metaphor? The disadvantage of using this
metaphor to the exclusion of others is that it can lead to the potentially
unnecessary development of complex Machiavellian strategies, with an
assumption that in any organizational endeavour, there are always winners
and losers. This can turn organizational life into a political war zone.
See Pfeiffer ’s book, Managing with Power: Politics and influence in organi-
zations (1992) to explore this metaphor further.
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102

Organizations as organisms
This metaphor of organizational life sees the organization as a living, adap-
tive system. Gareth Morgan says, ‘The metaphor suggests that different
environments favour different species of organizations based on different
methods of organizing… congruence with the environment is the key to
success.’ For instance, in stable environments a more rigid bureaucratic
organization would prosper. In more fluid, changing environments a
looser, less structured type of organization would be more likely to survive.
This metaphor represents the organization as
an ‘open system’. Organizations are seen as sets
of interrelated sub-systems designed to balance
the requirements of the environment with
internal needs of groups and individuals. This
approach implies that when designing organiza-
tions, we should always do this with the envi-
ronment in mind. Emphasis is placed on
scanning the environment, and developing a
healthy adaptation to the outside world.
Individual, group and organizational health and
happiness are essential ingredients of this
metaphor. The assumption is that if the social needs of individuals and
groups in the organization are met, and the organization is well designed
to meet the needs of the environment, there is more likelihood of healthy
adaptive functioning of the whole system (socio-technical systems).
The key beliefs are:
• There is no ‘one best way ’ to design or manage an organization.
• The flow of information between different parts of the systems and its
environment is key to the organization’s success.
• It is important to maximize the fit between individual, team and orga-
nizational needs.
This leads to the following assumptions about organizational change:
• Changes are made only in response to changes in the external envi-
ronment (rather than using an internal focus).
Organizational change
103

• Individuals and groups need to be psychologically aware of the need
for change in order to adapt.
• The response to a change in the environment can be designed and
worked towards.
• Participation and psychological support are necessary strategies for
success.
What are the limitations of this metaphor? The idea of the organization as
an adaptive system is flawed. The organization is not really just an adap-
tive unit, at the mercy of its environment. It can in reality shape the envi-
ronment by collaborating with communities or with other organizations,
or by initiating a new product or service that may change the environ-
ment in a significant way. In addition the idealized view of coherence and
flow between functions and departments is often unrealistic. Sometimes
different parts of the organization run independently, and do so for good
reason. For example the research department might run in a very
different way and entirely separately from the production department.
The other significant limitation of this view is noted by Morgan, and
concerns the danger that this metaphor becomes an ideology. The
resulting ideology says that individuals should be fully integrated with the
organization. This means that work should be designed so that people can
fulfil their personal needs through the organization. This can then become
a philosophical bone of contention between ‘believers’ (often, but not
always the HR Department) and ‘non-believers’ (often, but not always, the
business directors). See Burns and Stalker ’s book The Management of
Innovation (1961) for the original thinking behind this metaphor.
Organizations as flux and transformation
Viewing organizations as flux and transformation takes us into areas such
as complexity, chaos and paradox. This view of organizational life sees the
organization as part of the environment, rather than as distinct from it. So
instead of viewing the organization as a separate system that adapts to
the environment, this metaphor allows us to look at organizations as
simply part of the ebb and flow of the whole environment, with a
capacity to self-organize, change and self-renew in line with a desire to
have a certain identity.
The underpinning theory
104

This metaphor is the only one that
begins to shed some light on how
change happens in a turbulent world.
This view implies that managers can
nudge and shape progress, but cannot
ever be in control of change. Gareth
Morgan says, ‘In complex systems no
one is ever in a position to control or
design system operations in a comprehensive way. Form emerges. It
cannot be imposed.’
The key beliefs are:
• Order naturally emerges out of chaos.
• Organizations have a natural capacity to self-renew.
• Organizational life is not governed by the rules of cause and effect.
• Key tensions are important in the emergence of new ways of doing
things.
• The formal organizational structure (teams, hierarchies) only repre-
sents one of many dimensions of organizational life.
This leads to the following assumptions about organizational change:
• Change cannot be managed. It emerges.
• Managers are not outside the systems they manage. They are part of
the whole environment.
• Tensions and conflicts are an important feature of emerging change.
• Managers act as enablers. They enable people to exchange views and
focus on significant differences.
What are the limitations of this metaphor? This metaphor is disturbing for
both managers and consultants. It does not lead to an action plan, or a
process flow diagram or an agenda to follow. Other metaphors of change
allow you to predict the process of change before it happens. With the
flux and transformation metaphor, order emerges as you go along, and
Organizational change
105

can only be made sense of after the event. This can lead to a sense of
powerlessness that is disconcerting, but probably realistic!
See Chapter 9 on complex change for further reading on this metaphor.
The underpinning theory
106
Table 3.1 Four different approaches to the change process
Metaphor How change is tackled Who is Guiding principles
responsible
Machine Senior managers define targets Senior Change must be
and timescale. Consultants management driven. Resistance
advise on techniques. Change can be managed.
programme is rolled out from Targets set at the
the top down. Training is given start of the process
to bridge behaviour gap. define the direction.
Political system A powerful group Those with There will be
of individuals builds a new power winners and losers.
coalition with new guiding Change requires
principles. There are debates, new coalitions and
manoeuvrings and new negotiations.
negotiations which eventually
leads to the new coalition
either winning or losing.
Change then ensues as new
people are in power with new
views and new ways of
allocating scarce resources.
Those around them position
themselves to be winners
rather than losers.
Organisms There is first a research phase Business There must be
where data is gathered on the improvement/ participation and
relevant issue (customer HR/OD involvement, and
feedback, employee survey etc). managers an awareness of
Next the data is presented to the need for
those responsible for making change.
changes. There is discussion The change is
about what the data means, and collaboratively
then what needs to be done. designed as a
A solution is collaboratively response to
designed and moved towards, changes in the
with maximum participation. environment.
Training and support are People need to be
given to those who need to supported through
make significant changes. change.

STOP AND THINK!
Q 3.1 Which view of organizational life is most prevalent in your
organization?
What are the implications of this for the organization’s ability to
change?
Q 3.2 Which view are you most drawn to personally?
What are the implications for you as a leader of change?
Q 3.3 Which views are being espoused here? (See A, B, C, D.)
A All staff memo from management team
The whole organization is encountering a range of difficult environmental
issues, such as increased demand from our customers for faster delivery and
Organizational change
107
Table 3.1 continued
Metaphor How change is tackled Who is Guiding principles
responsible
Flux and The initial spark of change is Someone with Change cannot be
transformation an emerging topic. This is a authority to act managed; it
topic that is starting to appear emerges.
on everyone’s agenda, or is Conflict and tension
being talked about over coffee. give rise to change.
Someone with authority takes Managers are part
the initiative to create a of the process.
discussion forum. The Their job is to
discussion is initially fairly highlight gaps and
unstructured, but well contradictions.
facilitated. Questions asked
might be ‘Why have you
come?’, ‘What is the real issue?’,
‘How would we like things
to be?’ The discussion involves
anyone who has the energy
to be interested.
A plan for how to handle the
issue emerges from a series of
discussions. More people are
brought into the net.
Gareth Morgan’s metaphors used with permission of Sage Publications Inc.

higher quality, more legislation in key areas of our work, and rapidly devel-
oping competition in significant areas.
Please examine the attached information regarding the above (customer
satisfaction data, benchmarking data vs competitors, details of new legisla-
tion) and start working in your teams on what this means for you, and how
you might respond to these pressures.
The whole company will gather together in October of this year to begin
to move forward with our ideas, and to strive for some alignment between
different parts of the organization. We will present the management’s vision
and decide on some concrete first steps.
B E-mail from CEO
A number of people have spoken to me recently about their discomfort with
the way we are tackling our biggest account. This seems to be an important
issue for a lot of people. If you are interested in tackling this one, please
come to an open discussion session in the Atrium on Tuesday between
10.00 and 12.00 where we will start to explore this area of discomfort. Let
Sarah know if you intend to come.
C E-mail from one manager to another
John seems to be in cahoots with Sarah on this issue. If we want their support
for our plans we need to reshape our agenda to include their need for extra
resource in the operations team. I will have a one to one with Sarah to check
out her viewpoint. Perhaps you can speak to John.
Our next step should be to talk this through with the key players on the
Executive Board and negotiate the necessary investment.
D Announcement from MD
As you may know, consultants have been working with us to design our
new objective setting process which is now complete. This will be rolled
out starting 1 May 2009 starting with senior managers and cascading to
team members.
The instructions for objective setting are very clear. Answers to frequently
asked questions will appear on the company website next week.
This should all be working smoothly by end of May 2009.
The underpinning theory
108

MODELS OF AND APPROACHES TO
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Now we have set the backdrop to organizational behaviour and our
assumptions about how things really work, let us now examine ways of
looking at organizational change as represented by the range of models
and approaches developed by the key authors in this field. Table 3.2 links
Gareth Morgan’s organizational metaphors with the models of and
approaches to change discussed below.
Organizational change
109
Table 3.2 Models of change and their associated metaphors
Metaphor
Model or approach Machine Political Organism Flux and
system transformation
Lewin, three-step model ✓ ✓
Bullock and Batten, ✓
planned change
Kotter, eight steps ✓ ✓ ✓
Beckhard and Harris, ✓
change formula
Nadler and Tushman, ✓ ✓
congruence model
William Bridges, ✓ ✓ ✓
managing the transition
Carnall, change ✓ ✓
management model
Senge, systemic model ✓ ✓ ✓
Stacey and Shaw, complex ✓ ✓
responsive processes

Lewin, three-step model: organism, machine
Kurt Lewin (1951) developed his ideas about organizational change from
the perspective of the organism metaphor. His model of organizational
change is well known and much quoted by managers today. Lewin is
responsible for introducing force field analysis, which examines the
driving and resisting forces in any change situation (see Figure 3.1). The
underlying principle is that driving forces must outweigh resisting forces
in any situation if change is to happen.
Using the example illustrated in Figure 3.1, if the desire of a manager is
to speed up the executive reporting process, then either the driving
forces need to be augmented or the resisting forces decreased. Or even
better, both of these must happen. This means for example ensuring that
those responsible for making the changes to the executive reporting
process are aware of how much time it will free up if they are successful,
and what benefits this will have for them (augmenting driving force). It
might also mean spending some time and effort managing customer
expectations and supporting them in coping with the new process
(reducing resisting force).
Lewin suggested a way of looking at the overall process of making
changes. He proposed that organizational changes have three steps. The
first step involves unfreezing the current state of affairs. This means
The underpinning theory
110
Sp
ee
d
up
e
xe
cu
ti
ve
r
ep
or
ti
ng
p
ro
ce
ss
Figure 3.1 Lewin’s force field analysis
Source: Lewin (1951)
Management Board
asking for this
Will free up time for us
Provides opportunity for
questioning customer
requirements
Good PR for us
We have little time free to
tackle this
Customers will be
disgruntled by changes
SAP will override all this in
2 years time

defining the current state, surfacing the driving and resisting forces and
picturing a desired end state. The second is about moving to a new state
through participation and involvement. The third focuses on refreezing
and stabilizing the new state of affairs by setting policy, rewarding
success and establishing new standards. See Figure 3.2 for the key steps
in this process.
Lewin’s three-step model uses the organism metaphor of organizations,
which includes the notion of homeostasis (see box). This is the tendency of
an organization to maintain its equilibrium in response to disrupting
changes. This means that any organization has a natural tendency to
adjust itself back to its original steady state. Lewin argued that a new state
of equilibrium has to be intentionally moved towards, and then strongly
established, so that a change will ‘stick’.
Lewin’s model was designed to enable a process consultant to take a
group of people through the unfreeze, move and refreeze stages. For
example, if a team of people began to see the need to radically alter
their recruitment process, the consultant would work with the team to
surface the issues, move to the desired new state and reinforce that
new state.
Organizational change
111
UNFREEZE
MOVE
REFREEZE
Take action
Make changes
Involve people
Make change
permanent
Establish new way
of things
Reward desired
outcomes
Examine status
quo
Increase driving
forces for change
Decrease resisting
forces against
change
Figure 3.2 Lewin’s three-step model
Source: Lewin (1951)

HOMEOSTASIS IN ACTION
In the 1990s many organizations embarked on TQM (total quality
management) initiatives which involved focusing on customer satisfac-
tion (both internally and externally) and process improvement in all areas
of the organization. An Economic Intelligence Unit report indicated that
two-thirds of these initiatives started well, but failed to keep the
momentum going after 18 months. Focus groups were very active to start
with, and suggestions from the front line came rolling in. After a while the
focus groups stopped meeting and the suggestions dried up. Specific
issues had been solved, but a new way or working had not emerged.
Things reverted to the original state of affairs.
Our view
Lewin’s ideas provide a useful tool for those considering organizational
change. The force field analysis is an excellent way of enabling for
instance a management team to discuss and agree on the driving and
resisting forces that currently exist in any change situation. When this
analysis is used in combination with a collaborative definition of the
current state versus the desired end state, a team can quickly move to
defining the next steps in the change process. These next steps are usually
combinations of:
• communicating the gap between the current state and the end state
to the key players in the change process;
• working to minimize the resisting forces;
• working to maximize or make the most of driving forces;
• agreeing a change plan and a timeline for achieving the end state.
We have observed that this model is sometimes used by managers as a
planning tool, rather than as an organizational development process.
The unfreeze becomes a planning session. The move translates to imple-
mentation. The refreeze is a post-implementation review. This approach
ignores the fundamental assumption of the organism metaphor that
The underpinning theory
112

groups of people will change only if
there is a felt need to do so. The change
process can then turn into an ill-
thought-out plan that does not tackle
resistance and fails to harness the
energy of the key players. This is
rather like the process of blowing up a
balloon and forgetting to tie a knot in
the end!
Bullock and Batten, planned change: machine
Bullock and Batten’s (1985) phases of planned change draw on the disci-
plines of project management. There are many similar ‘steps to
changing your organization’ models to choose from. We have chosen
Bullock and Batten’s:
• exploration;
• planning;
• action;
• integration.
Exploration involves verifying the need for change, and acquiring any
specific resources (such as expertise) necessary for the change to go
ahead. Planning is an activity involving key decision makers and tech-
nical experts. A diagnosis is completed and actions are sequenced in a
change plan. The plan is signed off by management before moving into
the action phase. Actions are completed according to plan, with feedback
mechanisms which allow some replanning if things go off track. The final
integration phase is started once the change plan has been fully actioned.
Integration involves aligning the change with other areas in the organiza-
tion, and formalizing them in some way via established mechanisms such
as policies, rewards and company updates.
This particular approach implies the use of the machine metaphor of
organizations. The model assumes that change can be defined and moved
towards in a planned way. A project management approach simplifies the
Organizational change
113

change process by isolating one part of the organizational machinery in
order to make necessary changes, for example developing leadership
skills in middle management, or reorganizing the sales team to give more
engine power to key sales accounts.
Our view
This approach implies that the organizational change is a technical
problem that can be solved with a definable technical solution. We have
observed that this approach works well with isolated issues, but works
less well when organizations are facing complex, unknowable change
which may require those involved to discuss the current situation and
possible futures at greater length before deciding on one approach.
For example we worked with one organization recently that, on
receiving a directive from the CEO to ‘go global’, immediately set up
four tightly defined projects to address the issue of becoming a global
organization. These were labelled global communication, global values,
global leadership and global balanced scorecard. While on the surface,
this seems a sensible and structured approach, there was no upfront
opportunity for people to build any awareness of current issues, or to
talk and think more widely about what needed to change to support
this directive. Predictably, the projects ran aground around the ‘action’
stage due to confusion about goals, and dwindling motivation within
the project teams.
Kotter, eight-steps: machine, political, organism
Kotter ’s (1995) ‘eight steps to transforming your organization’ goes a
little further than the basic machine metaphor. Kotter ’s eight-step
model derives from analysis of his consulting practice with 100
different organizations going through change. His research high-
lighted eight key lessons, and he converted these into a useful eight-
step model. The model addresses some of the power issues around
making change happen, highlights the importance of a ‘felt need’ for
change in the organization, and emphasizes the need to communicate
the vision and keep communication levels extremely high throughout
the process (see box).
The underpinning theory
114

KOTTER’S EIGHT-STEP MODEL
1. Establish a sense of urgency. Discussing today’s competitive realities,
looking at potential future scenarios. Increasing the ‘felt-need’ for change.
2. Form a powerful guiding coalition. Assembling a powerful group of
people who can work well together.
3. Create a vision. Building a vision to guide the change effort together
with strategies for achieving this.
4. Communicate the vision. Kotter emphasizes the need to communi-
cate at least 10 times the amount you expect to have to communicate.
The vision and accompanying strategies and new behaviours needs to
be communicated in a variety of different ways.
The guiding coalition should be the first to role model new behaviours.
5. Empower others to act on the vision. This step includes getting rid
of obstacles to change such as unhelpful structures or systems. Allow
people to experiment.
6. Plan for and create short-term wins. Look for and advertise short-
term visible improvements. Plan these in and reward people publicly
for improvements.
7. Consolidate improvements and produce still more change.
Promote and reward those able to promote and work towards the
vision. Energize the process of change with new projects, resources,
change agents.
8. Institutionalize new approaches. Ensure that everyone understands
that the new behaviours lead to corporate success.
Source: Kotter (1995)
Our view
This eight-step model is one that appeals to many managers with whom
we have worked. However, what it appears to encourage is an early burst
of energy, followed by delegation and distance. The eight steps do not
really emphasize the need for managers to follow through with as much
energy on Step 7 and Step 8 as was necessary at the start. Kotter peaks
early, using forceful concepts such as ‘urgency ’ and ‘power ’ and ‘vision’.
Then after Step 5, words like ‘plan’, ‘consolidate’ and ‘institutionalize’
seem to imply a rather straightforward process that can be managed by
Organizational change
115

others lower down the hierarchy. In our experience the change process is
challenging and exciting and difficult all the way through.
When we work as change consultants, we use our own model of orga-
nizational change (see Figure 3.3), which is based on our experiences of
change, but has close parallels with Kotter ’s eight steps. We prefer to
model the change process as a continuous cycle rather than as a linear
progression, and in our consultancy work we emphasize the importance
of management attention through all phases of the process.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 3.4 Reflect on an organizational change in which you were involved.
How much planning was done at the start? What contribution did
this make to the success or otherwise of the change?
Beckhard and Harris, change formula: organism
Beckhard and Harris (1987) developed their change formula from some
original work by Gelicher. The change formula is a concise way of
capturing the process of change, and identifying the factors that need to
be strongly in place for change to happen.
The underpinning theory
116
Establishing the
need for change
Building the
change team
Creating vision
and values
Communicating
and engaging
Empowering
others
Consolidating
Noticing
improvements
and energizing
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
Figure 3.3 Cycle of change
Source: Cameron Change Consultancy Ltd

Beckhard and Harris say:
Factors A, B, and D must outweigh the perceived costs [X] for the change to
occur. If any person or group whose commitment is needed is not sufficiently
dissatisfied with the present state of affairs [A], eager to achieve the proposed
end state [B] and convinced of the feasibility of the change [D], then the cost
[X] of changing is too high, and that person will resist the change.
… resistance is normal and to be expected in any change effort.
Resistance to change takes many forms; change managers need to analyze
the type of resistance in order to work with it, reduce it, and secure the need
for commitment from the resistant party.
The formula is sometimes written (A x B x D) > X. This adds something
useful to the original formula. The multiplication implies that if any one
factor is zero or near zero, the product will also be zero or near zero and the
resistance to change will not be overcome. This means that if the vision is not
clear, or dissatisfaction with the current state is not felt, or the plan is obscure,
the likelihood of change is severely reduced. These factors (A, B, D) do not
compensate for each other if one is low. All factors need to have weight.
This model comes from the organism metaphor of organizations,
although it has been adopted by those working with a planned change
approach to target management effort. Beckhard and Harris emphasized
the need to design interventions that allow these three factors to surface
in the organization.
Our view
This change formula is deceptively simple but extremely useful. It can be
brought into play at any point in a change process to analyse how things
Organizational change
117
C = [ABD] > X
C = Change
A = Level of dissatisfaction with the status quo
B = Desirability of the proposed change or end state
D = Practicality of the change (minimal risk and disruption)
X = ‘Cost’ of changing
Figure 3.4 Beckhard’s formula

are going. When the formula is shared with all parties involved in the
change, it helps to illuminate what various parties need to do to make
progress. This can highlight several of the following problem areas:
• Staff are not experiencing dissatisfaction with the status quo.
• The proposed end state has not been clearly communicated to key
people.
• The proposed end state is not desirable to the change implementers.
• The tasks being given to those implementing the change are too
complicated, or ill-defined.
We have noticed that depending on the metaphor in use, distinct
differences in approach result from using this formula as a starting
point. For instance, one public sector organization successfully used
this formula to inform a highly consultative approach to organizational
change. The vision was built and shared at a large-scale event involving
hundreds of people. Dissatisfaction was captured using an employee
survey that was fed back to everyone in the organization, and
discussed at team meetings. Teams were asked to work locally on using
the employee feedback and commonly created vision to define their
own first steps.
In contrast, a FTSE 100 company based in the UK, used the formula
as a basis for boosting its change management capability via a highly
rated change management programme. Gaps in skills were defined
and training workshops were run for the key managers in every signif-
icant project team around the company. Three areas of improvement
were targeted:
• vision: project managers were encouraged to build and communicate
clearer, more compelling project goals;
• dissatisfaction: this was translated into two elements, clear rationale
and a felt sense of urgency. Project managers were encouraged to
improve their ability to communicate a clear rationale for making
changes. They were also advised to set clear deadlines and stick to
them, and to visibly resource important initiatives, to increase the felt
need for change;
The underpinning theory
118

• practical first steps: project managers were advised to define their
plans for change early in the process and to communicate these in a
variety of ways, to improve the level of buy-in from implementers
and stakeholders.
Nadler and Tushman, congruence model: political, organism
Nadler and Tushman’s congruence model takes a different approach to
looking at the factors influencing the success of the change process
(Nadler and Tushman, 1997). This model aims to help us understand
the dynamics of what happens in an organization when we try to
change it.
This model is based on the belief that organizations can be viewed as
sets of interacting sub-systems that scan and sense changes in the
external environment. This model sits firmly in the open systems
school of thought, which uses the organism metaphor to understand
organizational behaviour. However, the political backdrop is not
ignored; it appears as one of the sub-systems (informal organization –
see below).
This model views the organization as a system that draws inputs from
both internal and external sources (strategy, resources, environment) and
transforms them into outputs (activities, behaviour and performance of
the system at three levels: individual, group and total). The heart of the
model is the opportunity it offers to analyse the transformation process in
a way that does not give prescriptive answers, but instead stimulates
thoughts on what needs to happen in a specific organizational context.
David Nadler writes, ‘it’s important to view the congruence model as a
tool for organizing your thinking… rather than as a rigid template to
dissect, classify and compartmentalize what you observe. It’s a way of
making sense out of a constantly changing kaleidoscope of information
and impressions.’
The model draws on the sociotechnical view of organizations that looks
at managerial, strategic, technical and social aspects of organizations,
emphasizing the assumption that everything relies on everything else.
This means that the different elements of the total system have to be
aligned to achieve high performance as a whole system. Therefore the
higher the congruence the higher the performance.
Organizational change
119

In this model of the transformation process, the organization is composed
of four components, or sub-systems, which are all dependent on each
other. These are:
• The work. This is the actual day-to-day activities carried out by indi-
viduals. Process design, pressures on the individual and available
rewards must all be considered under this element.
• The people. This is about the skills and characteristics of the people
who work in an organization. What are their expectations, what are
their backgrounds?
• The formal organization. This refers to the structure, systems and
policies in place. How are things formally organized?
• The informal organization. This consists of all the unplanned,
unwritten activities that emerge over time such as power, influence,
values and norms.
The underpinning theory
120
Informal
organization
People
Formal
organization
Work
INPUT
Strategy
Resources
Environment
OUTPUT
Individual, team and
organizational
performance
Managing change – transformation process
Figure 3.5 Nadler and Tushman’s congruence model
Source: Nadler and Tushman (1997). Copyright © Oxford University Press.
Use by permission of Oxford University Press, Inc.

This model proposes that effective management of change means
attending to all four components, not just one or two components. Imagine
tugging only one part of a child’s mobile.
The whole mobile wobbles and oscillates
for a bit, but eventually all the different
components settle down to where they
were originally. So it is with organiza-
tions. They easily revert to the original
mode of operation unless you attend to
all four components.
For example, if you change one
component, such as the type of work done in an organization, you need
to attend to the other three components too. The following questions
pinpoint the other three components that may need to be aligned:
• How does the work now align with individual skills? (The people.)
• How does a change in the task line up with the way work is organized
right now? (The formal organization.)
• What informal activities and areas of influence could be affected by
this change in the task? (The informal organization.)
If alignment work is not done, then organizational ‘homeostasis’ (see
above) will result in a return to the old equilibrium and change will fizzle
out. The fizzling out results from forces that arise in the system as a direct
result of lack of congruence. When a lack of congruence occurs, energy
builds in the system in the form of resistance, control and power:
• Resistance comes from a fear of the unknown or a need for things to
remain stable. A change imposed from the outside can be unsettling
for individuals. It decreases their sense of independence. Resistance
can be reduced through participation in future plans, and by
increasing the anxiety about doing nothing (increasing the felt need
for change).
• Control issues result from normal structures and processes being in
flux. The change process may therefore need to be managed in a
different way by, for instance, employing a transition manager.
Organizational change
121

• Power problems arise when there is a threat that power might be
taken away from any currently powerful group or individual. This
effect can be reduced through building a powerful coalition to take
the change forward (see Kotter above).
Our view
The Nadler and Tushman model is useful because it provides a memo-
rable checklist for those involved in making change happen. We have also
noticed that this model is particularly good for pointing out in retrospect
why changes did not work, which although psychologically satisfying is
not always a productive exercise. It is important to note that this model is
problem-focused rather than solution-focused, and lacks any reference to
the powerful effects of a guiding vision, or to the need for setting and
achieving goals.
As an alternative we have found that the McKinsey seven ‘S’ model is
a more rounded starting point for those facing organizational change.
This model of organizations uses the same metaphor, representing the
organization as a set of interconnected and interdependent sub-
systems. Again, this model acts as a good checklist for those setting out
to make organizational change, laying out which parts of the system
need to adapt, and the knock-on effects of these changes in other parts
of the system.
The seven ‘S’ categories are:
• staff: important categories of people;
• skills: distinctive capabilities of key people;
• systems: routine processes;
• style: management style and culture;
• shared values: guiding principles;
• strategy: organizational goals and plan, use of resources;
• structure: the organization chart.
See Managing on the Edge by Richard Pascale (1990) for full definitions of
the seven S framework.
The underpinning theory
122

William Bridges, managing the transition: machine,
organism, flux and transformation
Bridges (1991) makes a clear distinction between planned change and
transition. He labels transition as the more complex of the two, and
focuses on enhancing our understanding of what goes on during transi-
tion and of how we can manage this process more effectively. In this way,
he manages to separate the mechanistic functional changes from the
natural human process of becoming emotionally aware of change and
adapting to the new way of things.
Bridges says:
Transition is about letting go of the past and taking up new behaviours or
ways of thinking. Planned change is about physically moving office, or
installing new equipment, or re-structuring. Transition lags behind planned
change because it is more complex and harder to achieve. Change is situ-
ational and can be planned, whereas transition is psychological and less
easy to manage.
Bridges’ ideas on transition lead to a deeper understanding of what is
going on when an organizational change takes place. While focusing
on the importance of understanding what is going on emotionally at
each stage in the change process, Bridges also provides a list of useful
activities to be attended to during each phase (see Chapter 4 on
Leading change).
Transition consists of three phases: ending, neutral zone and new
beginning.
Organizational change
123
Ending Neutral zone New beginning
Figure 3.6 Bridges: endings and beginnings

Ending
Before you can begin something new,
you have to end what used to be. You
need to identify who is losing what,
expect a reaction and acknowledge the
losses openly. Repeat information about
what is changing – it will take time to sink in. Mark the endings.
Neutral zone
In the neutral zone, people feel disoriented. Motivation falls and anxiety
rises. Consensus may break down as attitudes become polarized. It can also
be quite a creative time. The manager ’s job is to ensure that people recog-
nize the neutral zone and treat it as part of the process. Temporary struc-
tures may be needed – possibly task forces and smaller teams. The manager
needs to find a way of taking the pulse of the organization on a regular basis.
William Bridges suggested that we could learn from Moses and his time
in the wilderness to really gain an understanding of how to manage
people during the neutral zone.
MOSES AND THE NEUTRAL ZONE
• Magnify the plagues. Increase the felt need for change.
• Mark the ending. Make sure people are not hanging on to too much
of the past.
• Deal with the murmuring. Don’t ignore people when they complain.
It might be significant.
• Give people access to the decision makers. Two-way communication
with the top is vital.
• Capitalize on the creative opportunity provided by the wilderness.
The neutral zone provides a difference that allows for creative thinking
and acting.
• Resist the urge to rush ahead. You can slow things down a little.
• Understand the neutral zone leadership is special. This is not a
normal time. Normal rules do not apply.
Source: Bridges and Mitchell (2002)
The underpinning theory
124

New beginning
Beginnings should be nurtured carefully. They cannot be planned and
predicted, but they can be encouraged, supported and reinforced.
Bridges suggests that people need four key elements to help them make
a new beginning:
• the purpose behind the change;
• a picture of how this new organization will look and feel;
• a step by step plan to get there;
• a part to play in the outcome.
The beginning is reached when people feel they can make the emotional
commitment to doing something in a new way. Bridges makes the point
that the neutral zone is longer and the endings are more protracted for
those further down the management hierarchy. This can lead to impa-
tience from managers who have emotionally stepped into a new begin-
ning, while their people seem to lag behind, seemingly stuck in an
ending (see box).
IMPATIENT FOR ENDINGS?
As part of the management team, I knew about the merger very early, so
by the time we announced it to the rest of the company, we were ready
to fly with the task ahead.
What was surprising, and annoying, was the slow speed with which
everyone else caught up. My direct reports were asking detailed ques-
tions about their job specifications and exactly how it was all going to
work when we had fully merged. Of course I couldn’t answer any of these
questions. I was really irritated by this.
The CEO had to have a long, intensive heart to heart with the whole
team explaining what was going on and how much we knew about the
future state of the organization before we could really get moving.
Organizational change
125

Our view
This phased model is particularly useful when organizations are faced
with inevitable changes such as closure of a site, redundancy, acquisition
or merger. The endings and new beginnings are real tangible events in
these situations, and the neutral zone important, though uncomfortable.
It is more difficult to use the model for anticipatory change or home-
grown change where the endings and beginning are more fluid, and
therefore harder to discern.
We use this model when working with organizations embarking on
mergers, acquisitions and significant partnership agreements. In partic-
ular, the model encourages everyone involved to get a sense of where they
are in the process of transition. The image of the trapeze artist is often
appreciated as it creates the feeling of leaping into the unknown, and
trusting in a future that cannot be grasped fully. This is a scary process.
The other important message which Bridges communicates well is that
those close to the changes (managers and team leaders) may experience a
difficulty when they have reached a new beginning and their people are
still working on an ending. This is one of the great frustrations of this type
of change process, and we counsel managers to:
• recognize what is happening;
• assertively tell staff what will happen while acknowledging their
feelings;
• be prepared to answer questions about the future again and again
and again;
• say you don’t know, if you don’t know;
• expect the neutral zone to last a while and give it a positive name such
as ‘setting our sights’ or ‘moving in’ or ‘getting to know you’.
Carnall, change management model: political, organism
Colin Carnall (1990) has produced a useful model that brings together a
number of perspectives on change. He says that the effective management
of change depends on the level of management skill in the following areas:
The underpinning theory
126

• managing transitions effectively;
• dealing with organizational cultures;
• managing organizational politics.
A manager who is skilled in managing transitions is able to help people to
learn as they change, and create an atmosphere of openness and risk-taking.
A manager who deals with organizational cultures examines the current
organizational culture and starts to develop what Carnall calls ‘a more
adaptable culture’. This means for example developing better information
flow, more openness, and greater local autonomy.
A manager who is able to manage organizational politics can understand
and recognize different factions and different agendas. He or she
develops skills in utilizing and recognizing various political tactics such as
building coalitions, using outside experts and controlling the agenda.
Carnall (see Figure 3.7) makes the point that ‘only by synthesizing the
management of transition, dealing with organizational cultures and
handling organizational politics constructively, can we create the envi-
ronment in which creativity, risk-taking and the rebuilding of self-esteem
and performance can be achieved’.
Our view
Carnall’s model obviously focuses on the role of the manager during a
change process, rather than illuminating the process of change. It provides
a useful checklist for management attention, and has strong parallels with
William Bridges’ ideas of endings, transitions and beginnings.
Organizational change
127
Managing
transitions
effectively Creativity
risk-taking
Internal & Dealing with and learning Achieving
external organizational organizational
pressures cultures Rebuilding change and
for change self-esteem learning
Managing and
organizational performance
politics
Figure 3.7 Carnall: managing transitions
Source: Carnall (1990). Printed with permission of Pearson Education Ltd.

STOP AND THINK!
Q 3.5 Compare the Nadler and Tushman congruence model with
William Bridges’ ideas on managing transitions. How are these
ideas the same? How are they different?
Senge et al: systemic model: political, organism, flux and
transformation
If you are interested in sustainable change, then the ideas and concepts in
Senge et al (1999) will be of interest to you. This excellent book, The Dance
of Change, seeks to help ‘those who care deeply about building new types
of organizations’ to understand the challenges ahead.
Senge et al observe that many change initiatives
fail to achieve hoped for results. They reflect on why
this might be so, commenting, ‘To understand why
sustaining significant change is so elusive, we need
to think less like managers and more like biologists.’
Senge et al talk about the myriad of ‘balancing
processes’ or forces of homeostasis which act to
preserve the status quo in any organization.
HOMEOSTASIS IN ACTION
We wanted to move to a matrix structure for managing projects. There was
significant investment of time and effort in this initiative as we anticipated
payoff in terms of utilization of staff and ability to meet project deadlines. This
approach would allow staff to be freed up when they were not fully utilized, so
that they could work on a variety of projects.
Consultants worked with us to design the new structure. Job specs were
rewritten. People understood their new roles. For a couple for months, it
seemed to be working. But after four months, we discovered that the project
managers were just carrying on working in the old way, as if they still owned
the technical staff. They would even lie about utilization, just to stop other
project managers from getting hold of their people.
I don’t think we have moved on very much at all.
Business Unit Manager, Research Projects Department
The underpinning theory
128

Senge et al say:
Most serious change initiatives eventually come up against issues embedded
in our prevailing system of management. These include managers’ commit-
ment to change as long as it doesn’t affect them; ‘undiscussable’ topics that
feel risky to talk about; and the ingrained habit of attacking symptoms and
ignoring deeper systemic causes of problems.
Their guidelines are:
• Start small.
• Grow steadily.
• Don’t plan the whole thing.
• Expect challenges – it will not go smoothly!
Senge et al use the principles of environmental systems to illustrate how
organizations operate and to enhance our understanding of what forces
are at play. Senge says in his book, The Fifth Discipline (1993):
Business and other human endeavours are also systems. They too are bound
by invisible fabrics of interrelated actions, which often take years to fully play
out their effects on each other. Since we are part of that lacework ourselves,
it’s doubly hard to see the whole patterns of change. Instead we tend to
focus on snapshots of isolated parts of the systems, and wonder why our
deepest problems never seem to get solved.
The approach taken by Senge et al is noticeably different from much of
the other work on change, which focuses on the early stages such as
creating a vision, planning, finding energy to move forward and deciding
on first steps. They look at the longer-term issues of sustaining and
renewing organizational change. They examine the challenges of first
initiating, second sustaining and third redesigning and rethinking
change. The book does not give formulaic solutions, or ‘how to’
approaches, but rather gives ideas and suggestions for dealing with the
balancing forces of equilibrium in organizational systems (resistance).
What are the balancing forces that those involved in change need to
look out for? Senge et al say that the key challenges of initiating change
are the balancing forces that arise when any group of people starts to do
things differently:
Organizational change
129

• ‘We don’t have time for this stuff!’ People working on change initia-
tives will need extra time outside of the day to day to devote to
change efforts, otherwise there will be push back.
• ‘We have no help!’ There will be new skills and mindsets to develop.
People will need coaching and support to develop new capabilities.
• ‘This stuff isn’t relevant!’ Unless people are convinced of the need for
effort to be invested, it will not happen.
• ‘They ’re not walking the talk!’ People look for reinforcement of the
new values or new behaviours from management. If this is not in
place, there will be resistance to progress.
They go on to say that the challenges of sustaining change come to the
fore when the pilot group (those who start the change) becomes
successful and the change begins to touch the rest of the organization:
• ‘This stuff is _____!’ This challenge concerns the discomfort felt by
individuals when they feel exposed or fearful about changes. This may
be expressed in a number of different ways such as ,‘This stuff is taking
our eye off the ball’, or ‘This stuff is more trouble that it’s worth.’
• ‘This stuff isn’t working!’ People outside the pilot group, and some of
those within the pilot group, may be impatient for positive results.
Traditional ways of measuring success do not always apply, and may
end up giving a skewed view of progress.
• ‘We have the right way!’/’They don’t understand us!’ The pilot group
members become evangelists for the change, setting up a reaction
from the ‘outsiders’.
The challenges of redesigning and rethinking change appear when the
change achieves some visible measure of success and starts to impact on
ingrained organizational habits:
• ‘Who’s in charge of this stuff?’ This challenge is about the conflicts
that can arise between successful pilot groups, who start to want to
do more, and those who see themselves as the governing body of
the organization.
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130

• ‘We keep reinventing the wheel!’ The challenge of spreading knowl-
edge of new ideas and processes around the organization is a tough
one. People who are distant from the changes may not receive good
quality information about what is going on.
• ‘Where are we going and what are we here for?’ Senge says,
‘engaging people around deep questions of purpose and strategy is
fraught with challenges because it opens the door to a traditionally
closed inner sanctum of top management’.
Our view
We like the ideas of Senge et al very much. They are thought-provoking
and highly perceptive. If we can persuade clients to read the book, we
will. However, in the current climate of time pressure and the need for
fast results, these ideas are often a bitter pill for managers struggling to
make change happen despite massive odds.
Whenever possible we encourage clients to be realistic in their quest for
change, and to notice and protect areas where examples of the right sort
of behaviours already exist. The messages we carry with us resulting from
Senge et al’s thoughts are:
• consider running a pilot for any large-scale organizational change;
• keep your change process goals realistic, especially when it comes to
timescales and securing resources;
• understand your role in staying close to change efforts beyond the
kick-off;
• recognize and reward activities that are already going the right way;
• be as open as you can about the purpose and mission of your enterprise.
There are no standard ‘one size fits all’ answers in the book, but plenty
of thought-provoking ideas and suggestions, and a thoroughly inspira-
tional reframing of traditional ways of looking at change. However,
those interested in rapid large-scale organizational change are unlikely
to find any reassurance or support in Senge et al’s book. The advice is,
start small.
Organizational change
131

STOP AND THINK!
Q 3.6 Reflect on an organizational change in which you were involved
that failed to achieve hoped-for results. What were the balancing
forces that acted against the change? Use Senge et al’s ideas to
prompt your thinking.
Stacey and Shaw, complex responsive processes: political,
flux and transformation
There is yet another school of thought represented by people such as
Ralph Stacey (2001) and Patricia Shaw (2002). These writers use the
metaphor of flux and transformation to view organizations. The implica-
tions of this mode of thinking for those interested in managing and
enabling change are significant:
• Change, or a new order of things, will emerge naturally from clean
communication, conflict and tension (not too much).
• As a manager, you are not outside of the system, controlling it, or
planning to alter it, you are part of the whole environment.
In Patricia Shaw’s book Changing Conversations in Organizations, rather
than address the traditional questions of ‘How do we manage change?’
she addresses the question, ‘How do we participate in the ways things
change over time?’ This writing deals bravely with the paradox that ‘our
interaction, no matter how considered or passionate, is always evolving
in ways that we cannot control or predict in the longer term, no matter
how sophisticated our planning tools’.
Our view
This is disturbing stuff, and a paradox that sets up some anxiety in
managers and consultants who are disquieted by the suggestion that our
intellectual strivings to collectively diagnose problems and design futures
may be missing the point. Shaw says, ‘I want to help us appreciate
ourselves as fellow improvisers in ensemble work, constantly
constructing the future and our part in it’. Stacey says of traditional views
of organizations as systems, ‘This is not to say that systems thinking has
The underpinning theory
132

no use at all. It clearly does if one is trying to understand, and even more,
trying to design interactions of a repetitive kind to achieve kinds of
performance that are known in advance’.
Ralph Stacey and Patricia Shaw have both written about complexity
and change. Managers, and particularly consultants, often find this diffi-
cult reading because on first viewing it appears to take away the rational
powers we have traditionally endowed upon our managers, change
agents and consultants. Patricia Shaw says of the traditional view of the
process consultant:
I would say that [the] ideal of the reflective practitioner [who can surface
subconscious needs so that groups of people can consciously create a
directed form of change] is the one that mostly continues to grip our imagi-
nations and shape our aspirations to be effective and competent individual
practitioners engaged in lifelong learning. Instead, I have been asking what
happens when spontaneity, unpredictability and our capacity to be surprised
by ourselves are not explained away but kept at the very heart [of our work].
In contrast, those working in hugely complex environments such as the
health sector or government have told us that they find the ideas in this
area to be a tremendous relief. The notion that change cannot be
managed reflects their own experiences of trying to manage change; the
overwhelming feeling they have of constantly trying to push heavy
weights uphill.
But how can managers and consultants use these ideas in real situa-
tions? We have distilled some groundrules for those working with
complex change processes, although the literature we have researched
studiously avoids any type of prescription for action.
In complex change, the leader ’s role is to:
• decide what business the organization is in, and stretch people’s
thinking on how to get there;
• ensure that there is a high level of connectivity between different
parts of the organization, encouraging feedback, optimizing informa-
tion flow, enabling learning;
• focus people’s attention on important differences: between current
and desired performance, between style of working, between past
and present results.
Organizational change
133

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
• It is useful to understand our own assumptions about managing
change, in order to challenge them and examine the possibilities
offered by different assumptions. It is useful to compare our own
assumptions with the assumptions of others with whom we work.
This increased understanding can often reduce frustration.
• Gareth’s Morgan’s work on organizational metaphors provides a
useful way of looking at the range of assumptions that exist about
how organizations work.
• The four most commonly used organizational metaphors are:
– the machine metaphor;
– the political metaphor;
– the organism metaphor;
– the flux and transformation metaphor.
• The machine metaphor is deeply ingrained in our ideas about how
organizations run, so tends to inform many of the well-known
approaches to organizational change, particularly project manage-
ment, and planning oriented approaches.
• Models of organizations as open, interconnected, interdependent
sub-systems sit within the organism metaphor. This model is very
prevalent in the human resource world, as it underpins much of the
thinking that drove the creation of the HR function in organiza-
tions. The organism metaphor views change as a process of
adapting to changes in the environment. The focus is on designing
interventions to decrease resistance to change, and increase the
forces for change.
• The political map of organizational life is recognized by many of the
key writers on organizational change as highly significant.
• The metaphor of flux and transformation appears to model the true
complexity of how change really happens. If we use this lens to
view organizational life it does not lead to neat formulae, or concise
how-to approaches. There is less certainty to inform our actions.
This can be on the one hand a great relief, and on the other hand
quite frustrating.
The underpinning theory
134

• There are many approaches to managing and understanding change
to choose from, none of which appears to tell the whole story, most of
which are convincing up to a point. See Table 3.3 for a summary of our
conclusions for each model.
• To be an effective manager or consultant we need to be able flexibly to
select appropriate models and approaches for particular situations.
See the illustrations of different approaches in Part Two.
Organizational change
135
Table 3.3 Our conclusions about each model of change
Model Conclusions
Lewin, three-step model Lewin’s ideas are valuable when analysing the
change process at the start of an initiative. His force-
field analysis and current state/end state discussions
are extremely useful tools.
However, the model loses its worth when it is
confused with the mechanistic approach, and the
three steps become ‘plan, implement, review’.
Bullock and Batten, The planned change approach is good for tackling
planned change isolated, less complex issues. It is not good when
used to over-simplify organizational changes, as it
ignores resistance and overlooks interdependencies
between business units or sub-systems.
Kotter, eight steps Kotter ’s eight steps are an excellent starting point
for those interested in making large or small-scale
organizational change. The model places most
emphasis on getting the early steps right: building
coalition and setting the vision rather than later
steps of empowerment and consolidation.
Change is seen as linear rather than cyclical, which
implies that a pre-designed aim can be reached
rather than iterated towards.
Beckhard and Harris, The change formula is simple but highly effective. It
change formula can be used at any point in the change process to
analyse what is going on.
It is useful for sharing with the whole team to
illuminate barriers to change.

The underpinning theory
136
Table 3.3 continued
Model Conclusions
Nadler and Tushman, The congruence model provides a memorable
congruence model checklist for the change process, although we think
the seven ‘S’ model gives a more rounded approach
to the same problem of examining interdependent
organizational sub-systems.
Both are also useful for doing a post-change analysis
of what went wrong!
Both encourage a problem focus rather than
enabling a vision-setting process.
William Bridges, Bridge’s model of endings, neutral zone and
managing the transition beginnings is good for tackling inevitable changes
such as redundancy, merger or acquisition. It is less
good for understanding change grown from within,
where endings and beginnings are less distinct.
Carnall, change Carnall’s model combines a number of key elements
management model of organizational change together in a neat process.
Useful checklist.
Senge, systemic model Senge challenges the notion of top-down, large-scale
organizational change. He provides a hefty dose of
realism for those facing organizational change: start
small, grow steadily, don’t plan the whole thing.
However, this advice is hard to follow in today ’s
climate of fast pace, quick results and maximum
effectiveness.
Stacey and Shaw, The complex responsive process school of thought is
complex responsive new, exciting and challenging; however it is not for
processes the faint-hearted.
There are no easy solutions (if any at all), the
leader ’s role is hard to distinguish and the literature
on the subject tends to be almost completely non-
prescriptive.

STOP AND THINK!
Q 3.7 Which model of organizational change would help you to move
forward with each of the following changes:
• Combining two well-respected universities to form one excel-
lent seat of learning.
• Turning Boston Philharmonic Orchestra into Boston
Improvisational Jazz Band.
• Evolving a group of mature MBA students into a networked
organization of management consultants.
Q 3.8 A fast food organization introduced a set of values recently which
were well communicated and enthusiastically welcomed. The
senior management team publicly endorsed the values and said,
‘This is where we want to be in 12 months’ time so that we are
ready for industry consolidation. You will all be measured on
achieving these values in your day-to-day work.’
The values were put together by a consultancy, which put a
great deal of effort into interviewing a broad range of people in the
organization. People at all levels like the look of the values, but
the situation three months later is that activity and conversations
around the values are diminishing. A lot of people are saying ‘We
are doing this already.’ There is still some enthusiasm, but people
are now getting scared that they will fall short of the values
somehow, and are starting to resent them.
What needs to happen now?
Q 3.9 If Stacey and Shaw have ‘got it right’ with their ideas about how
change emerges naturally, does that make books such as this
one redundant? Answers on a postcard!
Organizational change
137

138
4
Leading change
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we look at the leader ’s role in the change process. The
objectives of the chapter are to:
• enable leaders of change to explore the different roles they and their
colleagues need to play in a change process;
• identify how leaders of change can adapt their style and focus to the
different phases of the change process;
• emphasize the importance of self-knowledge and inner resources in
any leadership role.
The chapter is divided into six sections:
• visionary leadership;
• roles that leaders play;
• leadership styles and skills;

Leading change
• different leadership for different phases of change;
• the importance of self-knowledge and inner resources;
• summary and conclusions.
It is important to first make the point that good leadership is well-
rounded leadership. We believe that all four metaphors of organizations
give rise to useful notions of leadership. Leaders go wrong when they
become stuck in one metaphor, or in one way of doing things, and there-
fore appear one-dimensional in their range of styles and approaches.
To begin, we link leadership to the ideas presented in Chapter 3 on
organizational change, by looking at the type of leadership that follows
from approaching organizational change using each of the four key
metaphors (see Table 4.1):
• the machine metaphor;
• the political system metaphor;
• the organism metaphor;
• The flux and transformation metaphor.
Table 4.1 illustrates that the use of each metaphor brings both advantages
and disadvantages for those wishing to be successful leaders of change.
Table 4.1 Leadership linked to organizational metaphors
Metaphor Nature of change Leader ’s Type of Typical pitfalls for
role leadership the leader
required
Machine The designed end Chief Project Micro-management
state can be designer management. by leader means
worked towards. and Goal setting. activity focuses on
Resistance must implementer Monitoring measuring,
be managed. of the and rather than
Change needs to changes. controlling. experimenting or
be planned and taking risks.
controlled.
139

The underpinning theory
140
The machine metaphor draws attention to clear goals and the need for
structure, but overuse of this metaphor results in micromanagement of
outcomes and too little risk taking. The political system metaphor adds
Political Changes must be Politician – Visionary. Change leaders are
system supported by a powerful Building a seen as
powerful person. speaker and powerful Machiavellian
Change needs a behind the coalition. manipulators.
powerful coalition scenes Connecting Leaders cannot be
behind it. negotiator. agendas. trusted, so people
Winners and losers comply rather than
are important. commit. People do
the minimum.
Leaders begin to
follow their own
agenda (cover their
backs), rather than
some higher
purpose.
Organism Change is adaptive. Coach, Coaching The metaphor
Individuals and counsellor and becomes an
groups need to be and supporting. ideology. The
psychologically consultant, change process
aware of the holding up becomes
‘felt need’ for change. the mirror. self-serving and
End state can be achieves very little.
defined and worked There is a focus on
towards. reacting rather than
initiating. Change
happens, but too
little too late.
Flux and Change cannot be Facilitator Getting the Leaders and others
trans- managed, it emerges. of emergent governing involved become
formation Managers are part of change. principles confused and
the system, not right. frustrated. There is
outside the system. Enabling chaos. The change
Conflict is useful. connectivity. effort becomes
Managers enable Amplifying vague and
good connections issues. directionless.
between people. There is no sense of
progress to motivate
future effort.
Contradictions
become sticking
points.

Leading change
141
the harsh reality of organizational life, and reminds us of the necessity
for involving influential people when change is desired, but overuse can
be seen as manipulation. The organism metaphor highlights the need for
people to be involved, and to feel the need for change, but runs the risk
of moving too slowly and too late. Finally the flux and transformation
model is useful as a reminder that organizations and their people cannot
be wholly controlled unless we rule by fear! Leaders must encourage
discussion of conflicts and tensions to enable change to emerge, while
avoiding the trap of being too vague and lacking direction.
We believe that successful change leadership is achieved by combining
aspects of all four metaphors. This is evidenced by the models and
approaches introduced in Chapter 3, which combine different metaphors
to some degree (see Table 3.2).
COMBINING THE METAPHORS:
REFLECTIVE COACHING SESSION
Once I realized that my boss was using a completely different organizational
metaphor from myself, I began to see how we were clashing in our discussions
about how to run projects and how to improve processes.
I prefer the machine metaphor. I like things to be pretty clear. In my area we
have a well-defined structure with clear roles and objectives set for each person.
The team runs like a well-oiled machine, with me in the engine room pulling
levers and thinking about plans and processes.
On the other hand, my boss prefers a more fluid style of working. Objectives
are flexible and revised daily, and the hierarchy means very little to him. If
someone shows initiative and promise, he will go directly to that person and
have a quite intense conversation to convey the importance of a particular
initiative. It used to drive me crazy. I couldn’t keep control.
One day we had a chat about this using metaphor to discuss our differences.
It was most illuminating, and we started to see the pros and cons of each
approach. As a result I agreed to incorporate more flexibility in certain projects,
and he agreed to stick with the plan rather than review and change other, more
stable processes. We still clash from time to time, but it doesn’t cause quite so
much irritation!
Global Services Manager, Oil Company – on use of metaphor to enhance
understanding of other people’s viewpoints

Table 4.1 is also useful because it reveals a wide range of styles and skills
required of leaders, depending on the metaphor in use:
• goal setting;
• monitoring and controlling;
• coaching and supporting;
• building vision;
• communicating vision;
• building coalitions;
• networking;
• negotiating;
• facilitating;
• dealing with conflict.
The difficulty with a list of skills this long is that is seems unattainable. In
this chapter we try to help leaders to find a way through the various
requirements of a leader to pinpoint the most important roles, skills,
styles and areas of focus needed to make change happen.
VISIONARY LEADERSHIP
The first basic ingredient of leadership is a guiding vision. The leader has a
clear idea of what he wants to do – professionally and personally – and the
strength to persist in the face of setbacks, even failures. Unless you know
where you are going, and why, you cannot possibly get there.
Warren Bennis (1994)
Visionary leadership has become some-
thing of a holy grail. It seems to be a
rare commodity which is greatly
sought after. Our recent research (see
box) indicates that today ’s business
leaders place considerable value on
The underpinning theory
142

visionary leadership as a tool for organizational change. But is visionary
leadership really the answer?
In our change leadership sessions with private sector senior and middle
managers in the UK we ask people to name significant leaders of change.
The top four names mentioned over the period 1997–2002 were:
• Winston Churchill;
• Margaret Thatcher;
• Nelson Mandela;
• Adolf Hitler.
The top five characteristics that emerged through a typical discussion of
these significant leaders were:
• clear vision;
• determination;
• great speaker, great presence;
• tough when needed;
• able to stand alone;
Cameron Change Consultancy data 2002
Here we explore the views of the supporters of visionary leadership, and
those who make the case against it.
Bennis on the characteristics of visionary leaders
Warren Bennis identified three basic ingredients of leadership:
• a guiding vision;
• passion;
• integrity.
He also developed a useful comparison of the differences between
management and leadership (see Table 4.2) which unpacks some of the
different qualities of a visionary leader.
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This comparison exercise separates management from leadership in a
very clear way. This is useful for those wishing to take on more of a lead-
ership role, although it is sometimes interpreted as slightly downplaying
the important role of a good manager in organizational life. Most
managers have to do both roles.
Kotter on what leaders really do
Kotter (1996) echoes the ideas of Bennis. He says, ‘we have raised a genera-
tion of very talented people to be managers, not leader/managers, and vision
is not a component of effective management. The management equivalent to
vision creation is planning.’ He says that leaders are different from managers.
‘They don’t make plans; they don’t solve problems; they don’t even organize
people. What leaders really do is prepare organizations for change and help
them cope as they struggle through it.’ He identifies three areas of focus for
leaders and contrasts these with the typical focus of a manager:
• setting direction versus planning and budgeting;
• aligning people versus organizing and staffing;
• motivating people versus controlling and problem solving.
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144
Table 4.2 Managers and leaders
A manager A leader
Administers Innovates
Is a copy Is an original
Maintains Develops
Focuses on systems and structure Focuses on people
Relies on control Inspires trust
Has a short-range view Has a long-range perspective
Asks how and when Asks why
Has his eye on the bottom line Has his eye on the horizon
Imitates Originates
Accepts the status quo Challenges the status quo
Classic good soldier His own person
Does things right Does the right thing
Source: Bennis (1994)

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VISIONARY LEADERSHIP
We go to liberate, not to conquer.
We will not fly our flags in their country.
We are entering Iraq to free a people and the only flag which will be flown in
that ancient land is their own.
Show respect for them.
There are some who are alive at this moment who will not be alive shortly.
Those who do not wish to go on that journey, we will not send.
As for the others, I expect you to rock their world.
Wipe them out if that is what they choose.
But if you are ferocious in battle remember to be magnanimous in victory.
Iraq is steeped in history.
It is the site of the Garden of Eden, of the Great Flood and the birthplace of
Abraham.
Tread lightly there.
You will see things that no man could pay to see
– and you will have to go a long way to find a more decent, generous and
upright people than the Iraqis.
You will be embarrassed by their hospitality even though they have nothing.
Don’t treat them as refugees for they are in their own country.
Their children will be poor, in years to come they will know that the light of
liberation in their lives was brought by you.
Extract from speech widely hailed in the UK press at the time as visionary.
It was given by Lieutenant Colonel Tim Collins to around 800 men of the
battlegroup of the 1st Battalion of the Royal Irish Regiment, at their Fort
Blair Mayne camp in the Kuwaiti desert about 20 miles from the Iraqi
border on Wednesday 19 March 2003. His intention was to prepare the
men for the battle that lay ahead. Many of the men were young and the
support from people back in the UK was patchy.
Since 2003 Tim Collins has had cause to reflect on his celebrated visionary
call to action. He says he made assumptions about the motives at higher
levels of the army and government, and is quoted as saying:

What I had not realized is that there was no plan at the higher levels to
replace anything, indeed a simplistic and unimaginative overreliance in
some quarters on the power of destruction and crude military might… If
freedom and a chance to live a dignified and stable life free from terror was
the motive, then I can think of more than 170 families in Iraq last week who
would have settled for what they had under Saddam.
The Observer, 18th September, 2005
I HAVE A DREAM
I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true
meaning of its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are
created equal.’ I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons
of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down
together at the table of brotherhood.
I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering
with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be trans-
formed into an oasis of freedom and justice.
I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they
will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.
I have a dream today.
I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with
its governor having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullifi-
cation; one day right there in Alabama, little black boys and black girls will be
able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.
I have a dream today.
I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and moun-
tain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked
places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all
flesh shall see it together. This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the
South with. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair
a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords
of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will
be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail
together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.
Extract from speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. He was a driving force in the
non-violent push for racial equality in the 1950s and the 1960s. This speech
was given on 28 August 1963, on the steps of the Lincoln memorial. It
mobilized supporters and acted as the catalyst for the 1964 Civil Rights Act.
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Bass: proof that visionary leadership works!
Bass (in Bryman, 1992) developed the notion of transformation leader-
ship, which many managers find meaningful and helpful. He distin-
guished between transactional leadership and transformational
leadership (see box), and identified through extensive research that
charismatic and inspirational leadership were the components most likely
to be associated with leadership success.
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Transformational leadership involves the leader raising the followers’
sense of purpose and levels of motivation. The aims of the leader and
the followers combine into one purpose, and the leader raises the
followers’ confidence and expectations of themselves. Transformational
leadership comprises:
• charisma;
• inspiration;
• intellectual stimulation;
• individualized consideration.
Transactional leadership is simply an exchange in which the leaders
hands over rewards when followers meet expectations.
• contingent reward;
• management by exception.
Source: Bryman (1992)
Gardner: the need for leaders to embody a story
Howard Gardner ’s (1996) influential research into the nature of
successful leaders gave rise to some interesting lessons about visionary
leadership. He chose 11 20th century leaders who have really made a
difference, and researched their lives and their work by reading their
biographies and tracking down any speeches, letters, audiotapes and
videotapes that were available.
He chose a mixture of different types of leader, combining business
leaders, political leaders and those who influenced our thinking and
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behaviours without being in a position to lead
directly. The list included among others Alfred Sloan,
head of General Motors, Pope John XXIII, one of the
most influential and popular popes of modern times,
Martin Luther King, the advocate of African
Americans, and Margaret Mead, a cultural anthro-
pologist who deeply influenced our ideas about
childhood, family life and society. (There have been
attempts made to discredit her research, but she is
still supported by many as being highly innovative
and influential.)
Gardner ’s findings indicated that those leaders who had really made a
difference to the way others thought, felt and acted all appeared to have a
central story or message. Stories not only provide background, but help the
followers to picture the future. The story must connect with the audience’s
needs and be embodied in the leader him- or herself. Gardner makes the
point that phonies are never in short supply, and the individual who does
not embody or act out his or her messages will eventually be found out.
LEADERS’ STORIES
Margaret Thatcher
‘Britain has lost its way in defeatism and socialism. We must reclaim the lead-
ership from ‘them’ (socialists, union trouble makers and the ‘wets’) and restore
earlier grandeur.’
Margaret Mead
‘As human beings we can make wise decisions about our own lives by studying
options that many other cultures pursue.’
Mahatma Gandhi
‘We in India are equal in status and worth to all other human beings. We
should work cooperatively with our antagonists if possible, but be prepared to
be confrontational if necessary.’
Leadership stories from Gardner (1996)
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Heifetz and Laurie: vision is not the answer
Heifetz and Laurie (1997) say that vision is not the answer. They say that
the senior executive needs to alter his or her approach to match the needs
of 21st century organizations. They say that what is needed is adaptive
leadership. This is about challenging people, taking them out of their
comfort zones, letting people feel external pressure and exposing conflict.
‘Followers want comfort and stability, and solutions from their leaders.
But that’s babysitting. Real leaders ask hard questions and knock people
out of their comfort zones. Then they manage the resulting distress.’ They
believe the call for vision and inspiration is counter-productive and
encourages dependency from employees.
There is a difference between the type of leadership needed to solve a
routine technical problem and the type of leadership needed to enable
complex organizational change. Leaders of change should concentrate on
scanning the environment, and drawing people’s attention to the complex
adaptive challenges that the organization needs to address, such as culture
changes, or changes in core processes. This means not solving the problems
for people, but giving the work back to them. It also means not protecting
people from bad news and difficulty, but allowing them to feel the distress
of things not working well. These ideas are quite a long way from the
concept of transformational leadership mentioned above, which indicates
that successful leaders are charismatic, visionary and inspirational.
Jean Lipman-Blumen: leaders need to make connections
rather than build one vision
Jean Lipman-Blumen (2002) says that vision is no longer the answer. She
encourages leaders to search for meaning and make connections, rather
than build one vision. She notes that there is a growing sense that old
forms of leadership are untenable in an increasingly global environment.
She says that the sea change in the conditions of leadership imposed by
the new global environment requires new ways of thinking and working
which confront and deal constructively with both interdependence (over-
lapping visions, common problems) and diversity (distinctive character of
individuals, groups and organizations).
Lipman-Blumen talks about connective leaders (see box) who perceive
connections among diverse people, ideas and institutions even when the
parties themselves do not. In the new ‘connective era’, she says that
Leading change
149

leaders will need to reach out and collaborate even with old adversaries.
Mikhail Gorbachev is a good example of this in the political arena. Nelson
Mandela is another.
Again, this approach is different from the suggestion that leaders need
to develop and communicate clear vision in an inspiring way. Jean
Lipman-Blumen encourages leaders to help others to make good connec-
tions, and to develop a sense of common purpose across boundaries, thus
building commitment across a wide domain.
SIX IMPORTANT STRENGTHS FOR
CONNECTIVE LEADERS
• Ethical political savvy. A combination of political know-how with
strong ethics. Adroit and transparent use of others and themselves to
achieve goals.
• Authenticity and accountability. Authenticity is achieved by dedi-
cating yourself to the purpose of the group. Accountability is achieved
by being willing to have every choice scrutinized.
• A politics of commonalities. Searching for commonalities and
common ground, and building communities.
• Thinking long-term, acting short-term. Coaching and encouraging
successors, and building for a long-term future despite the current
demands of the day to day.
• Leadership through expectation. Scrupulously avoiding micro-
managing. Setting high expectations and trusting people.
• A quest for meaning. Calling supporters to change the world for the
better.
Source: Lipman-Blumen (2002)
Leadership for the 21st century: less vision, more connection?
The world is changing. Organizations are more dispersed and less hier-
archical. More information is more freely available. People want more
from their jobs than they used to. Does this then change the role of the
leader of change?
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150

Leading change
151
As we write this book, the US and UK governments are trying to
persuade the rest of the world that war on Iraq was the only way to
ensure a peaceful future. However, opinion polls within Europe and
the United States indicate that increasing numbers of people are
against armed conflict and no longer believe that this is a good way of
resolving international issues. Perhaps things are different now. The
increasingly globalized economy and access to news and information
are perhaps encouraging people to form cooperative relationships with
a measure of independence. Are people’s needs for strong leadership
starting to shift? Perhaps clear, visionary, authoritative leadership is no
longer working?
When we look inside organizations, the territory is also changing. John
Kotter (1996) draws our attention to changes in organizational structures,
systems and cultures (see Table 4.3). What does this mean for leading
change? We think this means a shift from expectations of one visionary
leader to the need for increased connectivity and overlapping agendas
between different groups.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 4.1 Name your top five contemporary leaders and say why you chose
each one. Reflect on how important visionary leadership is to you.
Q 4.2 What are the most significant changes that have happened in the
world since your childhood? Who was responsible for leading
these? Did visionary leadership play a key role?
Q 4.3 Draw up a table identifying the pros and cons of:
• visionary leadership;
• adaptive leadership;
• connective leadership.
Q 4.4 Re-read Kotter’s (1996) comparison of 20th and 21st century
organizational structures, systems and cultures. Then fill in your
own ideas about leadership of change.

152 Table 4.3 20th century organizations and 21st century organizations
Structure Systems Culture Leadership of
change
20th century • bureaucratic; • depend on fewer • inwardly focused; Our thoughts:
organizations • multilevelled; performance • centralized; • directive;
• organized with the information systems; • slow to make • visionary;
expectation that senior • distribute performance decisions; • charismatic;
management will manage; information to • political; • participative at top
• characterized by policies executives only; • risk averse. levels only.
and procedures that create • offer management
many complicated internal training and support
interdependencies. systems to senior
people only.
21st century • non-bureaucratic, with • depend on many • externally Our thoughts:
organizations fewer rules and employees; performance information oriented; • scanning and
• limited to fewer levels; systems, providing data • empowering; interpreting
• organized with the on customers especially; • quick to make environmental
expectation that • distribute performance decisions; changes;
management will lead, information widely; • open and candid; • encouraging
lower-level employees • offer management • more risk tolerant. connectedness;
will manage; training and support • giving meaning
• characterized by policies systems to many people. and purpose.
and procedures that
produce the minimal
internal interdependence
needed to serve customers.
Source: adapted from Kotter (1996)

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153
ROLES THAT LEADERS PLAY
There are various views about the role a leader should play in the change
process (see Table 4.1):
• The machine metaphor implies that the leader sits at the top of the
organization, setting goals and driving them through to completion.
• The political system metaphor implies that the leader needs to
become the figurehead of a powerful coalition which attracts
followers by communicating a compelling and attractive vision, and
through negotiation and bargaining.
• The organism metaphor says the leader ’s primary role is that of
coach, counsellor and consultant.
• The flux and transformation metaphor says the leader is a facilitator
of emergent change.
How does the leader of a change process ensure that all the necessary
roles are carried out? Should the leader try to perform all these roles
personally, or select a specific role for him- or herself and distribute
supporting roles among his or her colleagues?
Senge: dispersed leadership
Senge (Senge et al, 1999) has some fairly challenging ideas about this. He
says that successful leadership of change does not have to come from the
top of an organization. It comes from within the organization. He remarks
that senior executives do not have as much power to change things as
they would like to think.
He asks why we are struggling so much with changing our organiza-
tions, and he attacks our dependence on the ‘hero leader ’. He claims it
results in a vicious circle. The circle begins with a crisis, which leads to the
search for a new CEO in whom all hopes are invested. The new CEO acts
proactively and aggressively, and makes some dramatic short-term
improvements such as cutting costs and improving productivity. Everyone
then falls in line to please the new CEO, who does not suffer fools gladly.
Employees comply rather than work hard to challenge the status quo, and

The underpinning theory
154
a new crisis inevitably occurs. This vicious circle does not result in new
thinking or organizational learning or renewal, or even growth, and in turn
feeds our desire to find new hero-leaders. See Figure 4.1.
Senge offers some stark truths about organization change, which coun-
teract the reliance on top-level vision set out by Bennis and Kotter:
• Little significant change can occur if it is driven from the top.
• CEO programmes rolled out from the top are a great way to foster
cynicism and distract everyone from real efforts to change.
• Top management buy-in is a poor substitute for genuine commitment
and learning capabilities at all levels in an organization.
You can see Senge’s point. How could one or two brave people at the top
of an organization really be responsible for envisaging and tackling the
enormous range of challenges that present themselves when funda-
mental change is attempted? He claims that we need to think about
developing communities of interdependent leaders across organizations.
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Source: Senge et al (1999)

Leading change
155
Different types of leaders have different types of role. He identifies three
important, interconnected types of leader: local line leaders, executive
leaders and network leaders.
Local line leaders
These are the front-line managers who design
the products and services and make the core
processes work. Without the commitment of
these people, no significant change will
happen. These people are usually very focused
on their own teams and customers. They rely
on network leaders to link them with other
parts of the organization, and on executive
leaders to create the right infrastructure for
good ideas to emerge and take root.
Executive leaders
These are management board members. Senge
does not believe that all change starts here. Rather,
he states that these leaders are responsible for three
key things: designing the right innovation envi-
ronment and the right infrastructure for assess-
ment and reward, teaching and mentoring local
line leaders, and serving as role models to demon-
strate their commitment to values and purpose.
Network leaders
Senge makes the point that the really signif-
icant organizational challenges occur at the
interfaces between project groups, functions
and teams. Network leaders are people who
work at these interfaces. They are guides,
advisors, active helpers and accessors
(helping groups of people to get resource
from elsewhere), working in partnership
with line leaders. They often have the insight to help local line leaders to
move forward and make changes happen across the organization.

The interconnections are hard to achieve in reality. We have observed
the following obstacles to achieving smooth interconnection between the
different roles:
• Executive leaders are busy, hard-to-get-hold-of people who can
become quite disconnected from their local line leaders.
• Executive leaders and local line leaders rarely meet face to face and
communicate by e-mail, if at all.
• Network leaders, such as internal consultants or process facilitators,
are often diverted from their leadership roles by requests either to
perform expert tasks or to implement HR-led initiatives.
• Network leaders may be busy and effective, but are usually under-
valued as leaders of change. They often have to battle to get recog-
nized as important players in the organization.
Senge’s model recognizes the need for all three types of leader, and the
need for connectivity between different parts of the organization if
change is desired.
O’Neill: four key roles for successful change
Mary Beth O’Neill (2000) agrees with Senge’s idea of communities of leaders,
and identifies four specific leadership roles necessary for successful and
sustained change efforts in organizations. She uses Daryl Conner ’s work on
family therapy as her model for the change process, and identifies the
important roles as sponsor, implementer, advocate and agent. See Table 4.4.
Sponsor
The sponsor has the authority to make the
change happen. He or she legitimizes and
sanctions the change, and has line authority
over the people who will implement the
change and control of resources – such as time,
money and people. There are also sustaining
sponsors who are responsible for sponsoring
change in their own area.
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156

Good sponsors have a clear vision for the change. They identify goals
and measurable outcomes for the initiative. Sustaining sponsors must
be careful not to telegraph cynicism about the change to the team of
implementers.
Implementer
Implementers are the people who must actually implement the change.
They have direct line responsibilities to the sponsor. Their job is to
provide the sponsor with live feedback from the change initiative. They
can save the sponsor from tunnel vision, or from being surprised by
obstacles that those closest to the change sometimes notice first.
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157
Table 4.4 Roles in a change process
Role Description Hint
Sponsor Has the authority to make the Needs to have a clear vision for
change happen. the change.
Has control of resources. Identify goals and measurable
outcomes.
Sustaining Sponsors change in own area, Must be careful not to transmit
sponsor although top-level responsibility cynicism.
lies further up the hierarchy.
Implementer Implements the change. Needs to listen, enquire and
Reports to sponsor. clarify questions with the sponsor
Responsible for giving live at the start of an initiative.
feedback to the sponsor on
change progress.
Change agent Facilitator of change. Helps Acts as data gatherer, educator,
sponsor and implementers advisor, meeting facilitator, coach.
stay aligned.
Keeps sponsor on board.
No direct authority
over implementers.
Advocate Has an idea. Needs a sponsor Must make idea appealing to
to make it happen. sponsor.
Usually highly motivated.
Source: adapted from O’Neill (2000)

Implementers are most effective when they listen, inquire and clarify
their questions and concerns with the sponsor at the beginning of an
initiative. This means they can commit to an effort rather than falsely
complying early on and sabotaging later.
Change agent
A change agent is the facilitator of the change. He or she helps the
sponsor and the implementers stay aligned with each other. The effective-
ness of this role depends on the sponsor not abandoning the change
agent to the implementers. The sponsor must not ‘drop the ball’. When
this happens the change agent can over-function, making the system inef-
fective and unbalanced, and the change temporary.
The change agent acts as data gatherer, educator, advisor, meeting facil-
itator and coach. Most often he or she has no direct line authority over the
implementers, and is therefore in a naturally occurring triangle among
sponsor–implementer–agent.
Advocate
An advocate has an idea about how a change can happen but needs a
sponsor for his or her idea. All change needs to be sponsored.
Advocates are often passionate and highly motivated to make the
change happen. They must remember the key factor, which is to get a
sponsor. Without this, advocates become frustrated and demoralized.
Shrewd advocates promote ideas by showing their compatibility with
issues near and dear to sponsors’ change projects and goals.
We have included Mary Beth O’Neill’s definitions of these roles
because they provide a clear framework for those approaching organiza-
tional change, and illustrate the range of leadership roles necessary for
change to occur. Our experience is that people at all levels in organiza-
tions find this framework useful for kicking off and sustaining change,
and for judging how well the community of leaders is supporting the
change process. This model seems to provide the necessary amount of
clarity in today ’s organizations, where hierarchy is unclear and jobs and
projects overlap. There is often a need for a simple but flexible way of
defining who does what in any process of change.
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158

Leading change
159
STOP AND THINK!
Q 4.5 Use Mary Beth O’Neill’s four roles to analyse a change process in
your organization. Who performed which role? How well were the
roles performed? What contribution did the performance of these
roles make to the level of success of the changes?
LEADERSHIP STYLES AND SKILLS
Much has been written about leadership skills and leadership style. We
have chosen the work of Goleman because we find it illuminating and
useful when working with leaders at any stage in a change process. His
work on leadership styles identifies a set of six styles for the leader to
choose from in any situation and at any point in a change process.
Leaders we have worked with find this very useful (see boxed examples).
This set of six styles is underpinned by Goleman’s work on emotional
intelligence, which sets out the underlying competencies associated with
successful leadership. This acts as a convenient checklist for those
assessing their skills.
Goleman: leadership that gets results
In his quest to discover the links between emotional
intelligence and business results, Daniel Goleman (2000)
developed a set of six distinct leadership styles through
studying the performance of over 3,800 executives
worldwide. These six leadership styles, arising from
various different components of emotional intelligence,
are used interchangeably by the best leaders. He
encourages leaders to view the styles as six golf clubs,
with each one being used in a different situation.
Goleman also found that each style taken individually
has a unique effect on organizational climate over time,
some positive and some negative. This in turn has a
major influence on business results.

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160
Goleman links the competence of leaders directly to business results,
but also identifies the situations in which each style is effective:
• Coercive style. Only to be used sparingly if a crisis arises. This is a
useful style to employ if urgent changes are required now, but must
be combined with other styles for positive results long term.
Negative effects such as stress and mistrust result if this style is
overused.
• Authoritative style. Useful when a turnaround is required and the
leader is credible and enthusiastic. This is the ‘visionary ’ leadership
style. Goleman indicates that this style will only work if the leader is
well respected by his or her people, and is genuinely enthusiastic
about the change required. He does acknowledge the strongly posi-
tive effect of this approach, given the right prevailing conditions.
• Affiliative style. This style helps to repair broken relationships and
establish trust. It can be useful when the going gets tough in a
change process and people are struggling. However, it must be
used with other styles to be effective in setting direction and
creating progress.
• Democratic. This is an effective style to use when the team knows
more about the situation than the leader does. They will be able to
come up with ideas and create plans with the leader operating as
facilitator. However it is not useful for inexperienced team members
as they will go round in circles and fail to deliver.
• Pacesetting. This style can be used effectively with a highly moti-
vated, competent team, but does not lead to positive results long term
if used in isolation. Overuse of this style alone results in exhausted
staff who feel directionless and unrewarded. The leader needs to
switch out of this style to move into a change process rather than
simply drive for more of the same.
• Coaching. This is an appropriate style to use if individuals need to
acquire new skills or knowledge as part of changes being made.

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THE COERCIVE-AFFILIATIVE MANAGER
I realize on reflection that I have been using just two leadership styles all my
working life. I am 54, and this has been something of a revelation. I have been
using the coercive style together with the affiliative style. It never occurred to
me to do it any other way. I would tell the staff how things would be, give them
a dressing down, and make up afterwards by talking about the football or
asking about the family.
No one would make suggestions or use their initiative, and no one ever seemed
to learn anything new. I was completely in charge of an efficient but stagnant site.
It wasn’t easy incorporating other styles, but once I had cracked the
coaching style, things began to change. The staff began to see me as more
accessible. Now my people trust me more, and they are prepared to take
responsibility and to suggest things and to make changes. I use less energy to
carry out my role, and can think more clearly about how best to lead.
General manager of a manufacturing plant
THE PACESETTING MANAGER
At first glance I thought I was using all six styles in the right measure. Then when I
began to talk to my team about it, I realized that I was using the pacesetting style
85 per cent of the time. Even my attempts at being friendly (or affiliative) turned
out to be pacesetting approaches. People described how a casual chat with me
would end up feeling like an interrogation. People on the shop floor actively
avoided me after a while. Or they spent ages preparing for an encounter with me.
Of course, all my star performers loved this style. They found it thrilling and stim-
ulating. The others fell by the wayside as I had no time for coaching at all. My style
became a self-fulfilling prophecy. The competent people did well, and those who
needed to learn didn’t get the airtime from me that they needed, so they failed.
I’m not saying that this has completely changed. But now I do recognize
when I need to coach and when I need to paceset. My actions are more
aligned to my intentions, rather than being simply a question of habit.
Head teacher
See Table 4.5 for our summary of the six different styles and their uses.

162
Table 4.5 Our summary of Goleman’s six leadership styles
Coercive Authoritative Affiliative Democratic Pace-setting Coaching
Short Telling people Persuading and Building Asking the team Raising the bar Encouraging
definition what to do attracting people relationships what they think, and asking for a and supporting
when. with an with people and listening to bit more. people to try
engaging through use this. Increasing the new things.
vision. of positive pace. Developing
feedback. their skills.
When to use When there is When step When When the team When team When there is
this style a crisis. change is relationships members have members are a skills gap.
required. When are broken. something to highly
manager is both contribute. motivated and
credible and highly
enthusiastic. competent.
Disadvantages Encourages Has a negative Not productive May lead Exhausting if If manager is
of this style dependence. effect if if it is the only nowhere if used too much. not a good
People stop manager is not style used. team is Not appropriate coach, or if
thinking. credible. inexperienced. when team individual is
members need not motivated,
help. this style will
not work.

Goleman: the importance of emotional intelligence for
successful leaders
Underpinning Goleman’s six leadership style is his work on emotional
intelligence (see Goleman, 1998). This is worth examining as it sets out all
the competencies required to be a successful leader.
Goleman’s research into the necessity for emotional intelligence is
convincing. First, his investigation into 181 different management compe-
tence models drawn from 121 organizations worldwide indicated that 67
per cent of the abilities deemed essential for management competence
were emotional competencies. Further research carried out by
Hay/McBer looked at data from 40 different corporations to determine the
difference in terms of competencies between star performers and average
performers. Again emotional competencies were found to be twice as
important as skill-based or intellectual competencies.
EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES FOR LEADERS
Self-awareness
Knowing one’s internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions:
• Emotional awareness: recognizing one’s emotions and their effects.
• Accurate self-assessment: knowing one’s strengths and limits.
• Self-confidence: a strong sense of one’s self-worth and capabilities.
Self-management
Managing one’s internal states, impulses, and resources:
• Self-control: keeping disruptive emotions and impulses in check.
• Trustworthiness: maintaining standards of honesty and integrity.
• Conscientiousness: taking responsibility for personal performance.
• Adaptability: flexibility in handling change.
• Achievement orientation: striving to improve or meeting a standard of
excellence.
• Initiative: readiness to act on opportunities.
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164
Social awareness
Awareness of others’ feelings, needs, and concerns:
• Empathy: sensing others’ feelings and perspectives, and taking an
active interest in their concerns.
• Organizational awareness: reading a group’s emotional currents and
power relationships.
• Service orientation: anticipating, recognizing, and meeting customers’
needs.
Social skills
Adeptness at inducing desirable responses in others:
• Developing others: sensing others’ development needs and bolstering
their abilities.
• Leadership: inspiring and guiding individuals and groups.
• Influence: wielding effective tactics for persuasion.
• Communication: listening openly and sending convincing messages.
• Change catalyst: initiating or managing change.
• Conflict management: negotiating and resolving disagreements.
• Building bonds: nurturing instrumental relationships.
• Teamwork and collaboration: working with others toward shared goals.
Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals.
Source: Goleman (1998), reproduced with permission of
Bloomsbury Publishing, London
Goleman defined a comprehensive set of emotional competencies for
leaders (see box). He grouped these competencies into four categories:
• self-awareness;
• self-management;
• social awareness;
• social skills.
Self-awareness, he says, is at the heart of emotional intelligence. To back
this up, Goleman’s research shows that if self-awareness is not present in

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a leader, the chance of that person being competent in the other three
categories is much reduced.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SELF-MANAGEMENT
The managers that we work with often have high drive levels and are also very
intelligent. When this combination of characteristics is present in an individual,
that individual often experiences a lot of frustration. Other people are either
too slow, or too relaxed, or simply ‘not getting it’.
This was crystallized by a very dynamic and successful IT manager whom I
worked with recently. When I went through her emotional intelligence feed-
back with her using HayGroup’s Emotional Competence Inventory, her self-
management scores were low, especially in the area of self-control. I asked her
how often she felt frustrated in her work. She paused for a moment and then
with a sudden realization she said, ‘All the time.’ Up until that point, she had
not realized that there was an issue. This had just become a way of life. Others
were experiencing her as bad tempered, moody and occasionally bullying.
Then we started to talk about strategies for dealing with this.
Esther Cameron, 2003
A brief scan of the competence set will confirm that self-awareness,
self-management and social awareness are all competencies that are
not necessarily observable. We call this inner leadership. Only the social
skills category contains obvious observable behaviours. We call this
outer leadership.
In our experience those involved in leading change have to develop
especially strong inner leadership because of the emotions arising from
their own drive to achieve, coupled with potential resistance from many
levels, and the discomfort involved with letting go of old habits. It is a
very emotional landscape!
Daniel Goleman says that it is vital that leaders develop emotional
competencies. He says:
In the new stripped-down, every-job-counts business climate, these human
realities will matter more than ever. Massive change is constant; technical
innovations, global competition, and the pressures of institutional investors are

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166
ever-escalating forces for flux. As organizations shrink through waves of down-
sizing, those people who remain are more accountable – and more visible.
Whereas a bully, or a hypersensitive manager, might have gone unnoticed
deep in many organizations 10 years ago, he or she is much more visible now.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 4.6 Draw a pie chart that represents your own use of Goleman’s six
leadership styles. Are you using them in the right proportion? If
not, what do you plan to do differently and why? Try this exercise
again, but this time use the framework to help someone else to
focus on his or her leadership style. Write up the conversation,
indicating what insights the exercise provoked.
DIFFERENT LEADERSHIP FOR DIFFERENT PHASES
OF CHANGE
In this section we examine the different phases of the change process, to
identify the need for a leader to perform different skills or activities
during each phase. We do this by using three different but complimen-
tary models of the change process.
Cameron and Green: inner and outer leadership
In our own experience of working with leaders on change processes, it is
important to establish phases of change so that plans can be made and
achievements recognized. This phasing also enables a leader to see the
need for flexibility in leadership style, as the change moves from one phase
into another phase. We have identified both the outer leadership and inner
leadership requirements of a leader of change for each phase. See Table 4.6.
Kotter: the importance of getting the early steps right
Kotter ’s eight steps to transforming your organization (see Chapter 3)
form a comprehensive guide to tackling the process of change. Kotter
says that good leaders must get all eight steps right. However, he predicts
that the process will be a great deal easier if groundwork is done well.

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Table 4.6 Leadership of change phase by phase, comparing inner and outer
leadership requirements
Phase of change Outer leadership – Inner leadership – what
observable actions of goes on inside the leader
the leader
1. Establishing the need Influencing, understanding, Managing emotions,
for change researching, presenting, maintaining integrity, being
The leader illuminates a listening courageous, being patient,
problem area through knowing yourself, judging
discussion. whether you really have the
energy to do this
2. Building the change Chairing meetings, Social and organizational
team connecting agendas, awareness, self-awareness,
The leader brings the right facilitating discussion, managing emotions,
people together and building relationships, adaptability, taking
establishes momentum building teams, cutting initiative, having the drive
through teamwork. through the politics to achieve, maintaining
energy despite knock-backs
3. Creating vision and Initiating ideas, Strategic thinking, taking
values brainstorming, encouraging time to reflect, social
The leader works with the divergent and creative awareness, drive to
group to build a picture of thinking, challenging achieve, managing emotions
success. others constructively,
envisaging the future,
facilitating agreement
4. Communicating and Persuading and engaging, Patience, analysis of how to
engaging presenting with passion, present to different
The leader plays his or her listening, being assertive, audiences, managing
role in communicating being creative with ways of emotions with regard to
direction, giving it communicating other people’s resistance,
meaning, being clear about social awareness,
timescale and letting adaptability, empathy
people know what part
they will be playing.
5. Empowering others Clear target setting, good Integrity, trust, patience,
The leader entrusts those delegation, managing drive to achieve, steadiness
who have been involved without micromanaging of purpose, empathy
in the creation of the new or abdicating, coaching
vision with key tasks.

In Leading Change (1996), Kotter describes some of the actions a leader
needs to take during all eight steps. In Table 4.7 we give some of Kotter ’s
suggestions for the first four steps, as they seem to necessitate the most
direct action from the leader.
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168
6. Noticing improvements Playing the sponsorship Steadiness of purpose,
and energizing role well, walking the talk, organizational and social
The leader stays rewarding and sharing awareness, empathy,
interested in the process. success, building on new managing emotions, drive
This involves the ability to ideas to achieve
juggle lots of different
projects and initiatives
7. Consolidating Reviewing objectively, Social awareness, empathy,
The leader encourages celebrating success, giving drive to achieve, taking time
people to take stock of positive feedback before to reflect, steadiness of
where they are, and reflect moving on to what’s next purpose
on how much has been
achieved
Table 4.7 Kotter ’s recommended actions for the first four change steps
Kotter ’s step Recommended actions
1. Establishing a Push up the urgency level. Create a crisis by exposing issues
sense of urgency rather than protecting people from them. Send more data to
people about customer satisfaction, especially where weaknesses
are demonstrated. Encourage more honest discussion of these
issues.
2. Creating the Include enough main line managers, enough relevant
guiding coalition expertise, enough people with good credibility and reputation in
the organization and enough ability to lead. Avoid big egos and
snakes (who engender distrust).
Talk a lot together, build trust and build a common goal.
3. Developing a Vision building is a messy, difficult and sometimes emotionally
vision and strategy charged exercise. Take time to do the process properly and expect
it to take months. It is never achieved in a single meeting.
4. Communicating Keep the communication simple and use metaphor and analogy.
the change vision Creativity is necessary to ensure that many different forms of
communication are used to repeat the message, including
leading by example. Use two-way discussions and listen to the
feedback.

Rosabeth Moss Kanter: learning how to persevere
Rosabeth Moss Kanter (2002) highlights the need for keeping going in the
change process, even when it gets tough. She says that too often execu-
tives announce a plan, launch a task force and then simply hope that
people find the answers. Kanter ’s emphasis is different from Kotter ’s. She
says the difficulties will come after the change is begun.
Kanter says that leaders need to employ the following strategies to
ensure that a change process is sustained beyond the first flourish:
1. Tune into the environment. Create a network of listening posts to
listen and learn from customers.
2. Challenge the prevailing organizational wisdom. Promote kaleido-
scopic thinking. Send people far afield, rotate jobs and create interdis-
ciplinary project teams to get people to question their assumptions.
3. Communicate a compelling aspiration. This is not just about
communicating a picture of what could be, it is an appeal to better
ourselves and become something more. The aspiration needs to be
compelling as there are so many sources of resistance to overcome.
4. Build coalitions. Kanter says that the coalition-building step, though
obvious, is one of the most neglected steps in the change process.
She says that change leaders need the involvement of people who
have the resources, the knowledge and the political clout to make
things happen.
5. Transfer ownership to a working team. Once a coalition is formed,
others should be brought on board to focus on implementation.
Leaders need to stay involved to guarantee time and resources for
implementers. The implementation team can then build its own
identity and concentrate on the task.
6. Learn to persevere. Kanter says that everything can look like a failure
in the middle. If you stick with the process through the difficult times
(see box), good things may emerge. The beginning is exciting and the
end satisfying. It is the hard work in the middle that necessitates the
leader ’s perseverance.
7. Make everyone a hero. Leaders need to remember to reward and
recognize achievements. This skill is often underused in organizations,
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170
and it is often free! This part of the cycle is important to motivate
people to give them the energy to tackle the next change process.
STICKY MOMENTS IN THE MIDDLE OF CHANGE
AND HOW TO GET UNSTUCK
• Forecasts fall short. Change leaders must be prepared to accept
serious departures from plans, especially when they are doing some-
thing new and different.
• Roads curve. Expect the unexpected. Do not panic when the path of
change takes a twist or a turn.
• Momentum slows. When the going gets tough it is important to review
what has been achieved and what remains – and to revisit the mission.
• Critics emerge. Critics will emerge in the middle when they begin to
realize the impact of proposed changes. Change leaders should
respond to this, remove obstacles and move forward.
Source: Kanter (2002)
Bridges: leading people through transition
William Bridges (1991) has very clear ideas about what leaders need to do
to make change work. Bridges says that what often stops people from
making new beginnings in a change process is that they have not yet let
go of the past. He sees the leader as the person who helps to manage that
transition. We see this as a particularly useful frame of thinking when an
inevitable change such as a merger, acquisition, reorganization or site
closure is under way.
In Chapter 3 we referred to his three phases of transition:
• ending;
• neutral zone;
• new beginning.

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Leadership for the ending
Here is Bridges’ advice for how to manage the ending phase (or how to
get them to let go):
• Study the change carefully and identify who is likely to lose what.
• Acknowledge these losses openly – it is not stirring up trouble.
Sweeping losses under the carpet stirs up trouble.
• Allow people to grieve and publicly express your own sense of loss.
• Compensate people for their losses. This does not mean handouts!
Compensate losses of status with a new type of status. Compensate
loss of core competence with training in new areas.
• Give people accurate information again and again.
• Define what is over and what is not.
• Find ways to ‘mark the ending’ (see box).
• Honour rather than denigrate the past.
MARKING THE END
When a large publicly owned utility company in the UK split up into a
myriad of small privatized units, there was a great sense of loss. Old
teams and old friendships were breaking up. It was the end of an era. The
organization held a wake, at which everyone moaned and complained
and generally got things off their chest. There was much talk late into the
night. The transition moved more smoothly after that event as people
began to accept the reality and inevitability of the ending.
Leadership for the neutral zone
The neutral zone is an uncomfortable place to be. This is the time when
for instance, the reorganization has been announced, but the new organi-
zation is not in place, or understood, or working. Anxiety levels go up and
motivation goes down, and discord among the team can rise. This phase

needs to be managed well, or it can lead to chaos. A selection of Bridges’
tips for this phase are listed below (he itemizes 21 in his book):
• Explain the neutral zone as an uncomfortable time which with careful
attention can be turned to everyone’s advantage.
• Choose a new and more affirmative metaphor with which to describe it.
• Reinforce the metaphor with training programmes, policy changes
and financial rewards for people to keep doing their jobs during the
neutral zone.
• Create temporary policies, procedures, roles and reporting relation-
ships to get you through the neutral zone.
• Set short-range goals and checkpoints.
• Set up a transition monitoring team to keep realistic feedback flowing
upward during the time in the neutral zone.
• Encourage experimentation and risk taking. Be careful not to punish
all failures.
• Encourage people to brainstorm many answers to the old problems –
the ones that people say you just have to live with. Do this for your
own problems too.
Leadership for the new beginning
Here are some of Bridges’ ideas for this phase:
• Distinguish in your own mind the differ-
ence between the start, which can happen
on a planned schedule, and the beginning,
which will not.
• Communicate the purpose of the change.
• Create an effective picture of the change
and communicate it effectively.
• Create a plan for bringing people through the three phases of transi-
tion, and distinguish it from the change management plan.
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172

• Help people to discover the part they will play in the new system.
• Build some occasions for quick success.
• Celebrate the new beginning and the conclusion of the time of transition.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 4.7 Reflect on an organizational change in which you were involved.
Did the ‘sticky moments’ suggested by Rosabeth Moss Kanter
arise, and how were they dealt with? What could have been done
differently by those leading the change?
Q 4.8 Imagine that the organization you work for as a line manager is
about to be taken over by one of your key competitors. You have
been told that everyone in your area will still have a job, but you
will have to learn about the other organization’s way of doing
business and drop many of the products and services you deliver
now. Use the William Bridges’ tips to list some of the things you
would need to start doing to enable the transition.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE AND
INNER RESOURCES
Much is expected of a leader throughout a change process. It takes
courage, a sense of purpose, the ability to manage your emotions, high
integrity and a wide range of skills to lead change well. A great deal has
been written about skills development, but what about self-knowledge
and inner resources? How great a part does the inner life of the leader
play in his or her ability to lead change, and how can this capacity be
developed or improved?
We believe that this is the key to successful leadership; so does Daniel
Goleman. See above to read about his research into leadership success,
which indicates that self- awareness forms the bedrock of the emotionally
intelligent leader.
Bennis: the role of self-knowledge
Warren Bennis (1994) emphasizes the need to know yourself in order to
become a good leader. He says that leaders must have self-knowledge if
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173

they want to be freed up sufficiently to think in new ways. Bennis claims
that you make your life your own by understanding it, and become your
own designer, rather than being designed by your own experience. He
itemizes four lessons of self-knowledge. These are:
• One: be your own teacher. Leaders assume responsibility for their
own learning, and treat it as a route to self-knowledge and self-
expression. No one can teach them the lessons they need to learn.
Stumbling blocks can be denial and blame.
• Two: accept responsibility and blame no one. Do not expect other
people to take charge, or do things for you.
• Three: you can learn anything you want to learn. Leadership
involves a kind of fearlessness, an optimism and a confidence.
• Four: true understanding comes from reflecting on your experience.
Leaders make reflection part of their daily life. An honest look at the
past prepares you for the future.
Bennis also notes the potential benefits of leaders recalling their child-
hoods honestly, reflecting on them, understanding them, and thereby
overcoming the influence that childhood has on them. He quotes
Erikson, the famed psychoanalyst, who says that there are eight stages
of life each with an accompanying crisis (see Table 4.8). Erikson claims
that the way in which we resolve the eight crises determines who we
will be. He also notes that we may get stuck at a particular stage if we
do not manage to solve the crisis satisfactorily. For instance many of us
never overcome the inner struggle between initiative and guilt, and so
we lack purpose.
As a leader you may need to overcome some of the habits you devel-
oped at an early age, which will be challenging but rewarding. Usually
this process is accomplished via coaching, counselling or therapy
depending on how deep you want or need to go.
Covey: the need for principle-centred leadership
Steve Covey is a writer and teacher who has had a tremendous effect on
the psyche of UK and US managers. His book Principle-Centred
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174

Leadership (1992) was a New York Times bestseller for 220 weeks. His char-
acteristics of principle-centred leaders (see box) and his seven habits
(see below) are much quoted in management and leadership training
courses. Again, his focus is on inner leadership, that is, on how to be
rather than on what to do.
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175
Table 4.8 Development stages and their challenges
Stage Crisis Resolution Conditions for
optimal
development
Infancy Trust vs Hope or Mirroring
(0–18 months) mistrust withdrawal Acceptance
Early childhood Autonomy vs Will or Security (routines
(18 months–3 years) shame and compulsion and rituals)
doubt
Play age Initiative vs Purpose or Clear boundaries
(3–5 years) guilt inhibition Vision setting
School age Industry vs Competence Spectators
(8–12 years) inferiority or inertia Discipline
Adolesence Identity vs Fidelity or Sampling
(12–28 years) identity repudiation Modelling
confusion
Young adulthood Intimacy vs Love or Maturity
(28–40 years) isolation exclusivity Identity
Adulthood Generativity Care or Balance
(40–55 years) vs stagnation rejectivity Mastery
Maturity Integrity vs Wisdom or Support
(55+) despair disdain Forgiveness
Source: adapted from Erik Erikson in Bennis (1994)

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176
EIGHT CHARACTERISTICS OF
PRINCIPLE-CENTERED LEADERS
• They are continually learning.
• They are service oriented.
• They radiate positive energy.
• They believe in other people.
• They lead balanced lives.
• They see life as an adventure.
• They are synergistic.
• They exercise for renewal on all four dimensions of human personality
– physical, mental, emotional and spiritual.
Source: Covey (1992)
Covey ’s organization runs workshops and programmes underpinned by
a humanistic self-development approach. Unlike Bennis, he does not
advocate revisiting your childhood to overcome difficulties, but encour-
ages us to focus on visualizing a positive outcome and working with
energy and enthusiasm towards it.
Covey ’s seven habits (Covey, 1989) connect the leader ’s outer habits
with the inner capability, which he labels endowments:
• Habit 1: Be proactive. Know what needs to be done, and decide to
do it. Do not be driven by circumstances. (Needs self-awareness and
self-knowledge.)
• Habit 2: Begin with the end in mind. Have a clear sense of what you
are trying to achieve in each year, month, day, moment. (Needs imag-
ination and conscience.)
• Habit 3: Put first things first. This is about organizing how you spend
your time in line with Habit 2. He talks about looking at level of
urgency and level of importance of activities, and comments that we
spend too much time responding to urgent issues. (Needs willpower.)

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• Habit 4: Think win–win. Manage all interactions with the assump-
tion that mutually beneficial solutions are possible. (Needs an abun-
dance mentality.)
• Habit 5: Seek first to understand, then to be understood. Be prepared
to clarify what other people are getting at before you put your point
across. (Needs courage balanced with consideration.)
• Habit 6: Synergize. Value differences in people and work with others
to create a sum that is greater than the parts. (Needs creativity.)
• Habit 7: Sharpen the saw. Avoid
the futility of endless ‘busyness’.
Make time to renew. Covey says,
‘Without this discipline, the body
becomes weak, the mind mechan-
ical, the emotions raw, the spirit
insensitive, and the person selfish.’
(Needs continuous improvement
or self-renewal.)
STOP AND THINK!
Q 4.9 Identify the top five inner leadership strengths that you believe the
headmaster or headmistress of an underperforming school
needs to have. Use the ideas of Bennis and Covey in the section
above, and consider also Goleman’s emotional competencies.
Justify your choices. How could these areas be developed if they
were lacking?
Q 4.10 Reflect on your own leadership using Covey’s seven habits. What
are your strengths and weak areas?
Q 4.11 Imagine you have just been asked to lead a cultural change
programme in a 10,000 strong organization based throughout
Europe and the United States. The organization is a microelec-
tronics company which has grown through acquisition and now
wants to strengthen its unique culture as one organization
emphasizing commercial applications, customer service and
innovation. Using the ideas presented in this chapter, describe
the approach you would take to leading this initiative and
explain why.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
• Different metaphors of change lead to different assumptions about
what good leaders do. We believe that the most effective ideas about
change combine a number of metaphors, bringing the maximum
benefits and avoiding the pitfalls of blinkered thinking.
• A popular notion of leadership is of the hero-leader who leads from
the front with determination, great vision and independence of mind.
– Bennis places visionary leadership high on the agenda, and
makes a point of distinguishing leadership from management.
Kotter echoes this view.
– Studies that compared the effects of ‘transformational leader-
ship’ with those of ‘transactional leadership’ at the end of the
20th century indicated that charismatic and inspirational leader-
ship were the elements that led most reliably to team success.
– Howard Gardner ’s research into the minds of significant 20th
century leaders indicated that leaders who had great influ-
ence embodied stories and took care to connect well with
their audiences.
– Heifetz and Laurie and Jean Lipman-Blumen all argue against
the need for visionary leadership. Heifetz and Laurie advocate
adaptive leadership which is about taking people out of their
comfort zones, letting people feel external pressure and exposing
conflict. Jean Lipman-Blumen instead emphasizes the need for
leaders to ensure connectivity. She says leaders need to be able to
perceive connections among diverse people, ideas and institu-
tions even when the parties themselves do not.
• 21st century organizations are different, and the pace of change is even
faster. This has given rise to new ideas about where leaders need to put
their energies. Perhaps this means less vision and more connectivity.
• Different metaphors of the change process imply different leadership
roles. Senge advocates dispersed leadership, identifying three key
types of leader in an organizational system. If these three roles are in
place and are well connected, then change will happen naturally. Mary
Beth O’Neill names four key leadership roles in any change process.
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178

• Inner leadership is about what goes on inside the leader. Outer lead-
ership is about what the leader does. Outer and inner leadership are
both important for achieving organizational change.
• Daniel Goleman defines six leadership styles. A leader can select the
right style for the right situation, taking into account the necessary
conditions for success and long-term consequences. Goleman’s check-
list of emotional intelligence competencies is useful for any leader
wishing to be successful. These competencies include both inner and
outer leadership elements.
• Kotter says that the hard work must be put in early in the change
process, while Rosabeth Moss Kanter says the hardest part comes in
the middle and that perseverance is key. Bridges identifies specific
leadership tasks during endings, the neutral zone and beginnings.
• Bennis and Covey both place high value on the inner life of leaders.
Bennis emphasizes the need for self-knowledge, whereas Covey lists
a set of principles and guidelines to help leaders to develop positive
thinking patterns.
Leadership is a fascinating subject. We all have different experiences and
different views about what makes a good leader, and many of these views
are ones we hold quite strongly. There are many apparent contradictions
here. It is always intriguing to see how leaders with very different styles
can be equally successful. This observation can appear baffling to those
wishing to make a rational assessment of what works in leadership and
what does not work.
So how do we get to the truth about leaders? Do our heroes give us
useful clues? The hero-leader is an enduring theme in discussions of lead-
ership. Even the process of asking people to name their ‘top leaders’
encourages an individualist perspective, and automatically results in the
naming of heroes. Perhaps this type of information is flawed, as it
depends so much on the profile-raising skills of the leader, and his or her
own personal brand. The facts concerning how these leaders demon-
strated good leadership get lost in the general impression of success.
Leaders who offer a vision, or have a strong story, tend to be the most
memorable. Their stories, or new ways of thinking, if taken on, may
outlive the leader. Is this a sign of great leadership: when the story begins
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to live outside of the leader? There is also a strong sense that today ’s
followers need more than just a good story. They need a credible story
that stands up to scrutiny.
On the other hand, those who doubt the viability of the role of visionary
leadership suggest that leaders need to focus instead on connecting
agendas and highlighting painful challenges. Our view is that all these
things are necessary to create change, including the articulation of an
attractive vision. Just read the words of Martin Luther-King again to feel
the power of a well-articulated vision. Other things need to be in place too:
the timing has to be right, and the vision has to be accepted by followers.
The leader of change has to be courageous and self-aware. He or she
has to choose the right action at the right time, and to keep a steady eye
on the ball. However, the leader cannot make change happen alone. A
team needs to be in place, with well-thought-out roles, and committed
people who are in for the duration, not just for the kick-off.
One thing is certain: the going will not be smooth.
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Part Two
The applications
Strategy is the pattern or plan that integrates an organization’s major
goals, policies and action sequences into a cohesive whole.
James Quinn (1980)
In Part One we looked at change and the management of change from
three different perspectives: the individual, the team and the organiza-
tion. We also examined the roles, styles and skills needed to become a
successful leader of change.
In Part Two we apply this learning to specific types of change. We have
identified four generic change scenarios, and we look at the particular
management challenges involved in initiating and implementing each
type of change. These change scenarios are:
• structural change;
• mergers and acquisitions;
• cultural change;
• IT-based process change.
181

We look at what differentiates these changes, and for each scenario we
identify which approach to managing organizational change is the most
relevant, and look at the implications for individuals and teams. We also
give tips and resources for managers in these situations.
In this introduction we briefly review the strategic change process,
identifying the elements that make a strategic change process successful.
STRATEGIC CHANGE PROCESS
When we look at Figure II.1, or probably more realistically Figure II.2, we
can see that typically the whole process begins with an internal or
external trigger for change. In a way we compartmentalize the universe
in order to make sense of it. This whole book is an attempt to make order
out of the chaos we sometimes feel around change. It is very rare that
anyone could say for sure that this change began on that particular day
or at that particular meeting. But in our ideal universe these triggers for
change make us take a long hard look at the market or industry we are in,
examine our customer and stakeholder relationships, and scrutinize our
organizational capability. And as a result we review where we want to be,
how we want to get there and what we need to do to get there. We
develop our new vision, mission and values.
Now all sorts of changes may need to happen as a result of this exer-
cise, but typically we will need to adjust one or all of the following:
• the organizational structure;
• the commercial approach;
• the organizational culture;
• the relevant processes.
OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURE
We tackle all four types of change identified above. In Chapter 5 we
tackle structural changes head on. This is because we observe how
many strategic changes result in structural changes, and we wanted to
write something helpful about how to make this approach work well.
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183
Internal and/or external
drivers for change
Learning
review
cycle
Experience
Review
Develop
Integrate
Creating and defining
� Vision
� Mission
� Values/culture
O
rg
a
n
iz
a
tio
n
a
l
a
n
d
m
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
ca
p
a
b
ili
ty
a
n
d
c
a
p
a
ci
ty
b
u
ild
in
g
Implementing the
changes
Managing the
changes
Change initiatives
Alignment Attunement
Critical mass
More change
Market industry analysis
Customer analysis
Stakeholder analysis
Organizational analysis
Change management plan
Figure II.1 The strategic change process (1)

Chapter 6 tackles mergers and acquisitions, and deals with change situ-
ations when competitors or suppliers (and indeed customers) are
brought into the organization. Although it is not specifically addressed,
many of the issues raised are pertinent to partnering as well. Chapter 7
focuses on cultural change, and specifically deals with three areas:
aligning the organization to a market and customer focus, aligning the
organization to its overarching objectives, and developing an employee
brand. All three areas have something important to say about how to
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lenses/filters
stakeholders
identification
understanding
management
internal drivers
external drivers
analysis direction
change
approach
metaphors
paradigms
mindsets
adjusting
lenses leadership
styles & roles
building capacity,
capability & readiness
managing
transition
implementing
the changes
aligning the
organization
individual, team &
organizational learningattuning
individuals,
teams &
organization
scanning
Figure II.2 The strategic change process (2)

tackle cultural change. Finally Chapter 8 is focused on IT-enabled
process change, as so many of us have undergone change as a direct
result of developments in technology or the re-engineering of processes.
Other important aspects of the change process
There are six other essential characteristics of successful strategic
change initiatives:
• Alignment is an important feature of a successful change initiative.
This is about ensuring that all the components of the change plan are
an integrated whole. This means that they have an internal integrity
but are also linked into the whole organizational system and beyond,
if necessary.
• Attunement is important too. This is about mirroring the preferred
organizational culture, and ensuring that all aspects of the change are
carried out in line with organizational values and with sufficient
attention to the human side of change.
• Critical mass is vital. The aim of a change management plan is to
develop momentum and build sustainability. This occurs when a
sufficiently critical mass of people are aligned and in tune with senior
management.
• Building organizational capacity, capability and readiness.
Change management capacity and capability within organizations
vary dramatically. Even organizations that seem to go through
constant change do not necessarily have this as a key competency
within their people. Our contention is that the more the senior
management recognizes the need to develop this capability within
itself and a significant proportion of its managers, the sooner
change can become a way of life and not something to be feared,
shunned and avoided.
• Encouraging individual, team and organizational learning. Change
managers should be well supported with training and coaching if
they are to be successful. Some succeed without this, but they are the
exception. Usually the demands of implementing change, together
with a need to keep the day-to-day requirements of the job going,
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mean that everything gets done in a rush, without pausing to review,
develop or integrate. The habit is then set: managers hop from expe-
rience to experience without learning very much. Learning it clearly
doesn’t stop at an individual level. Mentoring, reviewing and feed-
back mechanisms help the change process and also build ongoing
change capability.
• Mindset. The whole of the change process will operate within a
certain mindset or prevailing culture. It is important to understand
that all our observations, calculations and decisions will be influ-
enced by the lens through which we look.
As you go through the following chapters, it may help to refer back to
Figures II.1 and II.2 as you think through how each type of change can be
achieved successfully as part of an organization-wide strategic change.
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187
5
Restructuring
We trained hard. But is seemed that every time
we were beginning to form into teams, we
would be reorganized. I was to learn later in life
that we tend to meet any new situation by
reorganizing. And what a wonderful method it
can be for creating the illusion of progress while
producing confusion, inefficiency, and
demoralization.
Gaius Petronius Arbiter, The Satyricon,
1st century AD
These words spoken two millennia ago might be very familiar to some of
you. They certainly are to us, and we believe they are as insightful now as
they were then. However, even though these words have been much
quoted, organizations do not necessarily take any notice of them!
Although some managers are now getting this process right, most
people’s experience of restructuring is negative. People often roll their
eyes and say ‘Not again’, ‘It failed’, ‘Why didn’t they manage it better?’,
and ‘Why can’t they leave us to just get on with the job?’

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Restructuring as a theme for change might seem a little strange because
restructuring as a key strategic objective is not particularly meaningful.
Surely we should be looking at the reasons behind the change. There are
a number of important points here:
• It seems that restructuring becomes the solution to a variety of orga-
nizational issues, and in that sense we need to look at the restruc-
turing process itself as it impacts on so many people’s lives.
• Given that managers and staff are restructured so often, it is impor-
tant to understand the dynamics of restructuring, what typically goes
wrong and what a good process looks like.
• In our view restructuring should be the last option considered by
management rather than the first option. It is often a method for not
addressing the organizational issues that it seeks to resolve.
• Many of the tools are useful in other change situations.
This chapter looks at:
• the reasons for restructuring;
• the restructuring processes:
– strategic review and reasons for change;
– critical success factors, design options and risk assessment;
– learnings from previous projects and best practice;
– project planning and project implementation;
– monitoring and review;
• restructuring from an individual change perspective – the special case
of redundancy;
• enabling teams to address organizational change.
In the UK the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD)
is running an ongoing research project ‘Organising for Success in the
21st century ’ (www.cipd.org.uk) looking at current and future themes
of restructuring in organizations today. It stresses the importance to
companies of this process:

[W]hen DuPont announced its reorganization in February 2002, its stock
price rose 12%, putting a valuation on the new organization design of $7
billion (£4.5 billion). Less fortunate was the reception of Proctor and
Gamble’s… launched in 1999 by the company’s new chief executive, Durk
Jager, this reorganization had a $1.9 billion (£1.2 billion) budget over six
years. Within 18 months, the perceived difficulties… had cost Jager his job.
On a macro level, the survey found that during the 1990s the top 50 UK
companies moved from having on average one major reorganization
every five years to having one every three years. On a micro level, indi-
vidual managers had personally experienced seven reorganizations
within their organizations. Not all of the seven were major organization-
wide change, some were more local. Nonetheless managers encountered
various challenges as a result: managing the changes within themselves,
managing the changes within their staff, ensuring that both large-scale
and minor changes were aligned to the wider organizational strategies,
and last but by no means least, delivering on business as usual and
ensuring staff were motivated to deliver on business as usual.
REASONS FOR RESTRUCTURING
We are concerned in this chapter with the dynamics of change and
restructuring, less so with why the organization or part thereof is being
restructured. Restructuring can occur for numerous reasons:
• downsizing or rightsizing (market conditions or competitiveness);
• rationalization or cost-cutting (market conditions or competitiveness);
• efficiency or effectiveness (drive towards internal improvement);
• decentralization or centralization (drive towards internal improvement);
• flattening of the hierarchy (drive towards internal improvement);
• change in strategy (strategy implementation);
• merger or acquisition (strategy implementation);
• new product or service (strategy implementation);
• cultural change (strategy implementation);
Restructuring
189

• internal market re-alignment (strategy implementation);
• change of senior manager (leadership decision);
• internal or external crisis (unforeseen/unplanned change).
We believe that restructuring should only take place as a result of a
change in strategy. It should have a clear rationale and should be done in
conjunction with other parallel changes such as process change and
culture change. Of course this is not always the case. Sometimes other
events kick off restructuring processes, such as a new boss arriving, a
process or product failure, an argument, a dissatisfied client or an under-
performing person or department. In these cases it is sometimes difficult
for employees to curb their cynicism when changes in structure seem to
be a knee-jerk reaction, which lacks direction, appears cosmetic and fails
to lead to any real improvement.
We look at specific cases of restructuring such as mergers and acquisi-
tions, cultural change, rebranding and IT-based change in the other
application chapters.
THE RESTRUCTURING PROCESS
Whereas some of the other change scenarios we discuss in this book are
more problematic (for instance, culture change and merger/acquisition), on
the surface a restructuring of the organization should be a relatively
straightforward affair. If we recollect the organizational change metaphors,
the restructure could be quite neatly placed into the machine metaphor.
The key beliefs of the machine metaphor are:
• Each employee should have only one line manager.
• Labour should be divided into specific roles.
• Each individual should be managed by objectives.
• Teams represent no more than the summation of individual efforts.
• Management should control and there should be employee discipline.
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This leads to the following assumptions about organizational change:
• The organization can be changed to an agreed end state by those in
positions of authority.
• There will be resistance, and this needs to be managed.
Change can be executed well if it is well planned and well controlled.
Within this metaphor we could perhaps draw on Kurt Lewin’s three-step
process of organizational change. The first step involves unfreezing the
current state of affairs. This means defining the current state, surfacing
the driving and resisting forces and picturing a desired end state. The
second step is about moving to a new state through participation and
involvement. The third step focuses on refreezing and stabilizing the new
state of affairs by setting policy, rewarding success and establishing new
standards. Clearly an organizational restructuring process could follow
this model. There is a current state that needs unfreezing and a perceived
end state that is required. The main focus therefore is the need to ensure
that movement between the former to the latter state is as smooth and
quick as necessary.
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191
Unfreeze
Move
Refreeze
Take action
Make changes
Involve people
Make change
permanent
Establish new way
of things
Reward desired
outcomes
Examine status
quo
Increase driving
forces for change
Decrease resisting
forces against
change
Figure 5.1 Lewin’s three-step model
Source: Lewin (1951)

However, our experience when facilitating organizational change is that a
restructuring process will not be successful if it is focused solely on gener-
ating organizational structure charts and project plans. It is disappointing
to note that the CIPD research (CIPD, 2003) suggests that organizations
typically devote much more time during restructuring to areas other than
human resources. The finance and systems functions accounted for
double the time and attention that HR issues received. Anyone managing
or experiencing restructuring knows that there are many other factors to
consider. The politics of the situation and the psychological needs of
managers and staff play a key role. It is also important to ensure that the
restructuring process is positioned as a framework to enable the organi-
zation to do something it has not done before, rather than simply as a tool
for changing the structure around.
It is therefore useful to remind ourselves of Nadler and Tushman’s
congruence model, which derives from the political and organism
metaphors. One of the key aspects of the congruence model is that if you
change something in one part of the organizational system, the whole
system and other component parts are affected. If you do not factor this
into your change equation you may well face unintended consequences.
For example, restructuring in one part of the organization means that
people in other areas may well have to develop a whole new set of rela-
tionships. Very often little is done to communicate the changes, let alone
actively work to foster new working relationships.
The authors have witnessed numerous restructures in a variety of
public and private sector organizations, and have concluded that perhaps
the best way to approach the restructuring process is as a mixture of the
machine and organism metaphors. Beckhard and Harris’ change formula
is useful here:
C = [ABD] > X
C = Change
A = Level of dissatisfaction with the status quo
B = Desirability of the proposed change or end state
D = Practicality of the change (minimal risk and disruption)
X = ‘Cost’ of changing.
According to this formula, important factors in any restructuring are three-
fold. First, the reasons, timing and rationale for the restructure must be
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Restructuring
193
made very clear. Second, the end goal or vision must be communicated in
an appealing way. Third, the whole exercise must appear doable by being
well planned and well implemented. For the majority of individuals the
overwhelming experience is one of upheaval. The cost of changing is high.
It is therefore imperative that the benefits are accentuated and then
planned for in the most authentic and genuine way as possible.
In Figure 5.2 we outline our generic approach to restructuring, which
can be tailored to individual circumstances. We highlight areas of poten-
tial problems and also suggest ways of making it a more effective process.
Strategic review and reasons for change
Any attempt to restructure needs to have a clear communicable rationale.
This will typically come from a review of strategy that highlights the need
Strategic review
⇓
Reasons for change
⇓
Critical success factors
⇓
Design options
⇓
Risk assessment
⇓
Learning from previous
projects
⇓
Learning from best
practice
⇓
Project plan
⇓
Project implementation
⇓
Continuous monitoring
feedback and adjustment
⇓
Review
Figure 5.2 A generic approach to restructuring

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194
to address a specific issue relating to the internal or external business
environment. In the CIPD research cited above, restructuring was often
done to improve customer responsiveness, gain market share or improve
organizational efficiency. Key drivers in the private sector were ‘typically
performance declines, mergers and acquisitions and a change of chief
executive. In the public sector, key drivers are the need for new collabora-
tions and legislative and regulatory change, though chief executive
changes are again important.’
Critical success factors
Planning a structure requires the generation of critical success factors,
design options and a risk assessment. The purpose of a restructure is to
align the organization to better achieve its strategy. Critical success factors
are important to define, because if they are met, they will ensure success
for the new structure and by implication the strategy. Although identifi-
cation of these key factors is an important prerequisite to any restruc-
turing, this task is not necessarily clear-cut. The factors themselves will
depend on the organizational strategy, its culture, its market, its infras-
tructure and its internal processes.
We give an example from a local government authority that needed to
reorientate itself to have a much greater customer and citizen focus. One
of the explicit strategies was to restructure the organization in a way that
would dissolve the traditional departmental boundaries and their associ-
ated destructive tensions and unhelpful silo mentality.
CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS FOR A
LOCAL AUTHORITY
Public service users (and relevant stakeholders) not providers are
the focus
Will this structure result in clear, measurable deliverables to the customers
and citizens?
To what extent have we consulted with our customers?

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195
New working relationships are accommodated such as community
leadership, neighbourhood working and political management
arrangements
Does the structure reflect and support key changes in the political
arrangements and thinking?
A realistic interaction is demonstrated between policy planning in all
its forms, business development and financial planning at every level
Does the structure enable clear links between the different types of plans
and the relevant timescales?
Better prioritization of objectives and decision making on
workloads and resourcing can take place
Does the structure enable clarity around the authority’s strategic objectives?
Are there linkages across the organization?
Is there clarity as to who is accountable for what?
Are there supporting processes that manage potentially conflicting
priorities?
Individuals are clear about their responsibilities and
accountabilities and can act in an empowered way
Does the structure enable better application of the performance
management system?
Are individual and team development needs identified and resourced to
meet business outcomes?
A performance and feedback culture is developed across the
organization, internally and externally
Does the structure help strengthen the performance and feedback culture?
Design options
Once it has been decided what factors it is
important for the restructure to meet, it is
important to demonstrate that these are better
achieved through this structure rather than any
other one.
Design options are the different ways in
which the particular organization can be struc-
tured. It is not within the scope of this book to

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discuss in depth the different types of organizational structure – readers
are encouraged to read an overview in Organization Theory edited by D S
Pugh (1990). However, we are interested not only in the general impact of
restructuring but also in any specifics relating to a move from one type of
structure to another. Miles and Snow (1984) detailed the evolution of
organizational structure and its relationship to business strategy:
• an entrepreneurial structure when there is a single product or service,
or local/regional markets;
• a functional structure when there is a limited, standardized product
or service line, or regional/national markets;
• a divisional structure when there is a diversified, changing product or
service line, or national/international markets;
• a matrix structure when there are standard and innovative products
or services, or stable and changing markets;
• a dynamic network when there is the need for product or service
design or global changing markets.
The majority of organizations are structured according to an
entrepreneurial, functional, divisional or matrix structure. All have their
advantages and their limitations, as outlined in Table 5.1.
Risk assessment
As you can detect from the limitations described for each of the organi-
zational structures, there are risks attached to the restructuring process.
Those identified here are obviously generic risks; however each organi-
zation will need to identify the specific risks associated with moving
from one structure to another. The management therefore needs to
understand fully the nature of these risks. As a concrete example we
have included in the box excerpts from a risk assessment generated for a
medium-sized company that had decided to move from a function-
orientated organization to a divisionalized structure incorporating five
product-based business units together with a centralized ‘shared
services’ and financial control unit.

RISKS OF NEW STRUCTURE
Structure and interdependencies
Business unit structures will require some level of consistency (shape,
size, roles and responsibilities, reporting lines, etc) amongst themselves
to ensure that they can be adequately serviced from the centre.
Being very clear about the boundaries of the businesses we are in. That
is, boundaries of the markets and boundaries between the business units.
There needs to be clarity of role and responsibility between the central
services, shared services and business units.
Shared services/central service effectiveness
Shared services and, to a slightly lesser degree, central services need to
be closely aligned culturally and process-wise with the business units
that they interact with, to encourage efficient and effective management
across the boundary.
How support services are devolved, shared and centralized requires
careful planning to ensure cost-effective, efficient and productive functions.
Corporate identity
The corporate identity will be dissipated and may not be replaced.
In some areas staff’s ‘affinity’ will be significantly diminished – how can
this be managed?
Synergies
Synergies may be harder to exploit (eg deploying e-commerce solutions
across business units).
Cost
Costs are likely to increase if we move to devolved support functions –
what are the specific proposals that will increase income?
Cost inefficiency is a risk – the structure will inevitably lead to some
duplication of costs across the business units. The structure is not ideal
from a cost point of view.
Root cause
We may not address some true causes of problems that we have by
thinking that we are dealing with them by restructuring.
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198
Table 5.1 Advantages and limitations of different types of organization structure
Structure Entrepreneurial Functional Divisional by product, Matrix
geography or both
Main features Organized Organized around tasks to Divisions likely to be profit Double definition of profit
around one be carried out. centres and may be seen as centres.
central figure. Centralized. strategic business units for Permanent and full dual control
Totally planning and control purposes. of operating units – though one
centralized; Divisions/business units headed will be generally more powerful
no division by general managers who have than the other.
of responsibility. responsibility for their own Authority and accountability
resources. defined in terms of particular
Decentralized. decisions.
Situations Simple Small companies, few plants, Growing in size and Large multi-product,
where companies in limited product or service complexity. multinational companies with
appropriate early stages of diversity. Appropriate divisional/ significant interrelationships
their Relatively stable situations. business splits exist. and interdependencies.
development. Organizations growing Small sophisticated service
through mergers and companies.
acquisition.
Turbulent environments.
When producing a number
of different products or
services.
Geographic splits with
cultural distinctions in
company’s markets.

199
Advantages Enables the Controlled by strategic Spreads profit responsibility. Decisions can be taken locally,
founder, who leaders/chief executive. Enables evaluation of decentralized within a large
has a logical or Relatively low overheads. contributions of various corporation, which might
intuitive grasp Efficient. activities. otherwise be bureaucratic.
of the business, Clearly delineated external Motivates managers and Optimum use of skills and
to control its relationships. facilitates development of resources – and high-quality
early growth Specialist managers develop both specialists and generalists. informed decisions, reconciling
and expertise. Enables adaptive change. conflicts within the organization.
development. Relatively simple lines of CEO concentrates on Enables control of growth and
control. corporate strategy. increasing complexity.
Can promote competitive Growth through acquisition Opportunities for management
advantage through the easier. development.
functions. Can be entrepreneurial.
Divestment can be managed
more easily.
Limitations Founder may Succession problems – Conflict between divisions Difficult to implement.
have insufficient specialists not generalists for resources. Dual responsibilities can cause
knowledge in are created. Possible confusion over locus confusion.
certain areas. Unlikely to be of responsibility (local or Accounting and control
Only appropriate entrepreneurial or adaptive. head office). difficulties.
up to a certain Profit responsibility Duplication of efforts and Potential conflict between the
size. exclusively with CEO. resources. two wings, with one generally
Becomes stretched by growth Divisions may think more powerful.
and product diversification. short-term and concentrate High overhead costs.
Functional managers may on profits. Decision making can be slow.
concentrate on short-term Divisions may be of different
routine activities at the sizes and some may grow
expense of longer-term very large.
strategic developments. Evaluation of relative
Problems of ensuring performances may be difficult.
coordination between Coordination of
functions – rivalry may interdependent divisions and
develop. establishing transfer pricing
Functional experts may seek may be difficult.
to build mini-empires.
Source: summarized from Thompson (2001)

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The task for the management team was to generate an honest list, assess
the degree of risk (probability x impact) and agree actions to minimize the
risks. In addition, and as an example of good practice, a risk assessment
was also completed for the process of managing the change as well as the
changes themselves, as listed in the box.
RISKS INHERENT IN MANAGING CHANGE
Management of change
The organization will spend another six months to a year with the ‘eye off
the ball’.
There is a lack of change/implementation expertise and skills.
The executive management team tends to get ‘bored with the detail’
quickly and therefore may lose interest and impetus and let both the tran-
sition and the transformation peter out.
Communications
Staff may see this as ‘yet another restructure’ not tackling the real prob-
lems, and therefore become demotivated.
People
We need to ensure the best people possible for each job. We need to
ensure that we keep the people we want to keep.
Management of synergies
Loss of knowledge – we need to capture and transfer knowledge of, for
example, strategy formulation and implementation.
We need to ensure best practice in one part of the company is trans-
ferred across the company.
Roles, responsibilities and interdependencies
Risk of business units declaring ‘UDI’ and not fully engaging with central
services and company-wide issues.
We need to ensure those in the centre are motivated and their perfor-
mance measured. We need to establish levers other than the policeman
role and the threat of regulators etc.

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Learning from previous projects and best practice
Clearly you do not have to reinvent the wheel when it comes to restruc-
turing. Given the propensity for restructuring that most organizations
have, you and your colleagues will have a reservoir of knowledge as to
what has worked before. You will also know quite a lot about what has
not worked! Now is the time to check back to see what the learnings are
from previous change projects. If your organization has not formally
retained this knowledge, a requisite variety of managers and staff can
quite easily generate such a list. We include an example list (see box). The
headings are the central themes that emerged during the session. These
were the most relevant issues for the organization under review. Yours
might well be different.
In terms of best practice there are many resources: this book for
example, a wide range of literature, professional bodies and consultancy
firms. It is important to get the right balance between what has worked
elsewhere and what will work in your organization. And there is no guar-
anteed formula for that.
LEARNINGS FROM PREVIOUS CHANGE PROJECTS
Change management/project management
Preparation
Utilize previous learning from projects.
Check for false assumptions.
Always, always do a potential problem analysis.
Look for design faults at an early stage and throughout.
Significant top-level commitment.
Communication
Induction for all in the change.
Ensure earliest possible involvement of stakeholders.
Take the board with you.
Ensure cohesion across organization.
Harness energy and enthusiasm across organization.

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Objectives
Lack of focus produces failures.
Link the hard and soft interventions and measures.
Have clear objectives.
Differentiate between the what and the how.
Specific behaviour objectives help.
Implementation
It helps to have people who have been through similar projects before.
Network of people and resources.
Dedicated project management.
Multidisciplinary approach.
Build the change management team.
Monitoring
Build in a process of automatic review.
Always evaluate, financially and otherwise.
To ensure sustainability have follow-through.
Leadership and strategy
Vision, mission and values need to be overt, obvious, communicated and
followed.
Ensure alignment to strategy.
People
Don’t let line managers duck the issues – build responsibilities and account-
abilities into the process.
Requires involvement of people – as part of buy in, and they can actually
help!
Requires communication with people.
Be honest with people.
All the new teams need to be motivated and built.
Get the right people in the right jobs.
Profitability
Always cost the initiative.
Be clear where the value is added.
Separate infrastructure investment from return on investment.
Check for false assumptions.

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Project planning and project implementation
Leadership
The restructuring process can create considerable turbulence within an
organization, its managers and its staff. In the box is a copy of a note to a
chief executive shortly after a restructuring process had begun. It clearly
identifies the state of confusion that people throughout the organization
were experiencing.
MEMO TO CEO DESCRIBING THE EFFECT OF
CHANGE ON STAFF
People were still very much in the throes of the changes – many clearly
still affected on an emotional level by the restructuring process and all
highlighting areas that need clarifying going forward.
People thought that there was a tremendous energy surrounding the
changes – seeing lots of activity and lots of change being managed at a
rapid pace. The downside to this was the sense that it was too fast and
out of control, certainly outside of their control.
The majority of people felt positive at the ideas introduced at a high
level by the strategy. Some saw it as new and exciting, others as
providing one clear direction and having a certain theoretical clarity.
However the overwhelming feeling was a sense that while the Vision was
fine, there was a real lack of clarity around how it would be translated into
a living workable strategy. They needed something not only motivating to
aim for but also something quite specific.
Coupled with people’s sense of the pace of change, many reported
that not only was the direction somewhat hazy, but they saw different
managers going off in different directions.
There was a certain resignation to the fact that the organization was
going round and round – a ‘here we go again’ attitude – a sense that
they had been here before and wondering whether this time would be
any different.
They recognized that the direction might be clearer from the top;
perhaps they were not in the right place to be seeing the bigger picture.
Some people complained of having too little information, while others
complained of having too much information. Although one could say that
staff going through change may never be satisfied – or that management

will always get it wrong (damned if you do, damned if you don’t) – the key
question is ‘How do we deliver the right message, at the right time, to the
right people, through the right medium?’
Coupled with this theme of communication was the perceived need to
provide answers to the many questions people have when they are expe-
riencing (psychologically) the chaos of change. Often people were left with
no one to ask, or asking questions of managers who either didn’t know or
were themselves preoccupied with their own reactions to changes they
were going through.
In summary, and from an emotional perspective, the effect of
combining the various themes described above is quite a heady one.
People have reported feelings of being lost and confused, anxious and
worried, degrees of uncertainty and puzzlement, an inability to piece the
jigsaw together and, to some, the tremendous strain of having to wait
while the changes were revealed. Points to note here include the feeling
of having no control over their destiny and also watching as others (often
their managers) were suffering the traumatic effects of the changes which
they themselves might have to suffer at some stage.
This is often at the very time that ‘business as usual’ efforts need to be
redoubled. The tasks of those leading the restructure are to ensure that
business as usual continues; that people are readied for operating within
the new structure; and that the transition from the old structure to the
new structure is smooth and timely.
Attention to both the task and people sides of the process is imperative.
Depending on people’s predisposition, normally one will take prece-
dence over the other. There is a need to ensure that plans are in place for
all the necessary processes that are part of the change:
• communication plans: what, to whom, when and how;
• selection/recruitment plans: clear guidelines for both those under-
going selection, their managers and interested onlookers. These
should include criteria for selection, information about the process,
timescales and rationale behind the process;
• contingency plans: necessary if key people are unavailable at critical
times or if timescales look like slipping.
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Future direction and strategy
For many people the strategy and future direction behind a restructure is
hazy. This is very often a case of too much vision and not enough prag-
matism, but sometimes a case of too much pragmatism and not enough
vision! A balance is needed.
In any restructure it is imperative to describe a positive future as well
as to explain fully the rationale behind it, how it links to the strategy, how
it will work in practice, how it differs from what went before, how it is
better than what went before and what the benefits will be from it.
Communication
Communication in any change is absolutely essential. However, commu-
nications are often variable. There is sometimes too much communica-
tion, but more often too little too late. An added problem is
communication by e-mail. This is such a useful mechanism when
managers need large numbers of people to receive the same information
at the same time, but it is so impersonal and so heartless when delivering
messages of an emotional and potentially threatening nature.
A more tailored or personalized approach is better. The greater the
access to people who know the answers to the important questions, the
better. FAQs (frequently asked questions) are useful to compile and
communicate, but do not expect this to be the end of the story. Just
because you think you have told someone something it does not mean to
say he or she has heard it or assimilated it or believed it. People do strange
things under stress, like not listen. And they need to see the whites of
your eyes when you respond!
Key questions in people’s minds will be:
• What is the purpose of the restructure?
• How will it operate in practice?
• Who will be affected and how?
• What are the steps along the way, including milestones and timescales?
• How will new posts be filled and people selected?
• What happens to the others?
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205

• Where do you go to get help and how do you get involved?
• What is the new structure and what are the new roles?
• What new behaviours be required?
• Will training and development be provided?
Communication needs to be well planned, and these plans need to be
clear about how to get the right information to the right people at the
right time through the right medium (for the recipient). This includes
well-presented briefing notes for managers if they are to be the channel
for further communication. It is also worth checking for understanding
before these messengers are required to communicate the message.
Change in any form can trigger a number of emotional responses. If the
messages can be personalized the recipient is more likely to receive them
in a positive frame of mind. Personalized messages such as face-to-face
and one-to-one communications are especially relevant when an indi-
vidual may be adversely affected by the change.
Different communities of interest have different needs when it comes
to communications. Some people will need to be involved, some
consulted and some told. It is important that the right people get the
appropriate level of communication. It is important for them and it is
important for those around them. If your manager is seen to be ignored,
what does it say about the value of your work section?
Thought needs to be given to the recipients of the communication.
Those responsible for communicating need to ask:
• What are their needs for information?
• What is their preferred form of communication?
• When is the best time for them to be communicated with?
For example, people in a contact centre just may not have the time to read
endlessly long e-mails informing them of changes in other parts of the
business. However, they would probably like to be told face to face of
events that will involve changes to their management structure, or the
introduction of a new way of working.
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To prevent the rumour mill growing it is important that communica-
tion is timely, and reaches each of the chosen communities at the agreed
time. Start–stop–start again communications do not help either. A contin-
uing flow of communication will engender more confidence in the
change process.
Implementation process
The complexity of the restructuring task is often underestimated.
Timescales are often not met. Staff directly affected by the change and
potentially facing redundancy are subjected to undue stress because the
whole process takes too long to complete.
Managing people’s expectations is key. If you announce a plan, it needs
to be adhered to, or changes to plan clearly communicated.
Supporting mechanisms
In order to make the restructuring as smooth as
possible and ensure that the new structure gets up
and running quickly, a number of support mecha-
nisms need to be in place.
Visible managerial support
A key response of people going through the
process is that their management was often inef-
fectual at managing change during this period.
This is not necessarily the manager ’s fault. Many
experience having to go through a selection process for themselves, many
do not seem to get adequately briefed as to the nature of the changes, and
some either lose their jobs or get appointed into new positions and so do
not or cannot provide the necessary support through change.
Management styles across an organization can also be variable. Often
there is a reduced management visibility at these times rather than an
increased visibility.
People can see a restructure as just that – a change in structure, rather
than an internal realignment that would help them and the business
focus on, for example, their customers and with a different way of doing
things. It is the role of the manager to translate the purpose of the restruc-
ture into an understandable and viable way of doing things differently.
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Continued communication of the purpose
There needs to be an ongoing planned and ‘personalized’ communication
programme to ensure the right people get the right information at the
right time in the right format for them. People need to be told and
involved in how the organization will be operating differently in the
future. In these two-way communications staff and managers’ perspec-
tives need to be listened to, and where valid, need to be addressed.
Clear selection process
During any selection process certain things need to be in place: first, a
selection process plan that is agreed, is sensible, has an inner integrity, is
consistent, equitable and scheduled; and second, clear guidelines for
those undergoing selection, their managers and interested onlookers.
These should include criteria for selection, information about the process,
timescales, and rationale behind the process.
Senior management attention
In most instances where senior management are involved their presence
is generally appreciated, even if the restructure is perceived as a negative
change. The more people see the commitment of senior management the
better, be it attending meetings, visiting departments, branches or contact
centres to explain the rationale, and face the staff.
Constructive consultation
Different organizations will have different ways of involving staff in
changes. We believe that if middle managers and staff have a say in the
planning of change, some of the inconsistencies and incongruities
emerging from the change are picked up and addressed at a much earlier
stage. If there is more input and involvement at an earlier stage from
those managers who have a responsibility to manage the changes, this
too has an impact on the success of the change.
Monitoring and review
Monitoring and review is not something just to be done at the end of the
process and written up for the next time. If you have adopted the
machine approach to restructuring, perhaps you might think that once
the plan is in place, all it needs is a robotic implementation. Of course
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organizations are not entirely mechanistic, and individuals and groups
going through change can react in all sorts of ways. The restructuring
plan needs to be monitored constantly to see how both the task and
people aspects of the plan are progressing. Feedback loops need to be
built into the plan so that senior managers and those responsible for
implementation have their fingers on the pulse of the organization.
In our discussion of individual change (see Chapter 1) we remarked
that a certain amount of resistance to proposed changes is to be expected.
Just because people resist change does not mean to say that you are doing
it wrong! It is a naturally healthy human reaction for individuals and
groups to express both positive and negative emotions around change.
Managers can help this process along by encouraging straight talk.
Also, just because people resist change it does not mean to say that they
have got it wrong! They might well see gaps and overlaps, or things that
just are not going to work. Listening to the people who will have to make
the new structure work is not only a nice thing to do, it is a useful thing
to do and constitutes effective use of management time.
The process of monitoring and review should begin at the planning
stage and be an important part of the whole process, right through to the
point where you evaluate the effectiveness of the new structure in the
months and years after implementation.
RESTRUCTURING FROM AN INDIVIDUAL CHANGE
PERSPECTIVE: THE SPECIAL CASE OF REDUNDANCY
This section looks at redundancy, and how it
affects those made redundant and those who
survive. David Noer spent many years working
with individuals in organizations and
supporting them through change. He has
captured much of this experience in his book
Healing the Wounds: Overcoming the trauma of
layoffs and revitalizing downsized organizations
(1993). Although, as the title suggests, the book is
primarily focused on redundancy, there is much
of benefit to anyone who wants to tackle organi-
zational change and change management.
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209

Noer ’s research is useful for illuminating the short, medium and
long-term impact of change. He also suggests how a manager can inter-
vene on a number of levels to help smoothen and perhaps quicken the
change process.
Table 5.2 looks at the individual and organizational short to long-term
impact that redundancy can produce. Many of these feelings are not
necessarily disclosed: some are acted upon, others just experienced inter-
nally but having a clear effect on morale and motivation. Table 5.3
suggests a breakdown of what feelings are disclosed and undisclosed.
You might notice that many of the feelings found among those going
through this process are precisely the same ones that Kubler-Ross
described in her work on the change curve (1969).
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Table 5.2 The individual and organizational short to long-term
impact of redundancy
Individual impact Organizational impact
Short to Psychological contract broken Reduced risk taking
medium term Job insecurity Reduced motivation
Unfairness Lack of management
Distrust and sense of betrayal credibility
Depression, stress, fatigue Increased short-termism
Wanting it to be over Dissatisfaction with
Guilt planning and
Optimism communication
Anger over the process
Sense of permanent change
Continued commitment
Medium to Insecurity Extra workload
long term Sadness Decreased motivation
Anxiety Loyalty to job but not to
Fear company
Numbness Increased self-reliance
Resignation Sense of unfairness
Depression, stress, fatigue regarding top management
pay and severance
Source: summarized from Noer (1993). Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
210

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211
Dealing with redundancy: Noer’s model
Noer sees interventions at four different levels when dealing with redun-
dancy in an organizational context. Most managers only progress to level
one, whereas Noer suggests that managers need to work with their
people at all four levels. (See Figure 5.3.)
Level one: getting the implementation process right
Level one interventions are all about getting the process of change right.
In any change process there needs to be a good level of efficient and effec-
tive management. This includes a communication strategy and a process
that is in line with organizational values.
Noer suggests that once the decision is made to effect redundancies, it
needs to be done cleanly and with compassion. This requires open commu-
nication – ‘over-communicating is better than under-communicating’ –
emotional honesty and authenticity.
Although this is just level one it is hard to get this one absolutely right!
Level two: dealing with emotions
Once you have attended to getting the task process right, the next level is
getting the emotional process right. This involves dealing with the
disclosed and undisclosed feelings mentioned above. Let us be frank: a lot
of people are not very good at this. For many, allowing the release of
Table 5.3 Disclosed and undisclosed feelings about redundancy
Feelings Disclosed Undisclosed
Held in Fear, insecurity and uncertainty. Sadness, depression and guilt.
Easier to identify and found in Often not acknowledged and
every redundancy situation. hidden behind group
bravado.
Acted out Unfairness, betrayal and distrust. Frustration, resentment
Often acted out through blaming and anger.
others and constant requests for Often not openly expressed
information. but leak out in other ways.
Source: summarized from Noer (1993)

emotions and negative thoughts about the situation feels like they are
opening a hornet’s nest. Managers need some support and a considerable
amount of self-awareness if they are to handle this well.
There are many ways that managers can facilitate this process, with
either one-to-one meetings or team meetings.
This level is about ‘allowing time for expressions of feelings about situ-
ation plus implications for future and next steps for moving on’.
Level three: focusing on the future
The change curve indicates that a period of inner focus is followed by a
period of outward focus. Noer ’s research suggests that once levels one
and two have been dealt with, the organization now needs to focus on
those surviving the redundancy. This is aimed at ‘recapturing’ their sense
of self-control, empowerment and self-esteem. In the same way that those
who have been made redundant need to go through a process of
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212
Level one
getting the
process right
Level two
dealing with
emotions
Level three
focusing on the
future
Level four
embedding the
changes
Figure 5.3 Noer’s four-level redundancy intervention model
Source: Noer (1993)

Restructuring
213
regaining their self-worth and focusing on their strengths, those
remaining need to do the same.
There should be plenty of organizational imperatives for this to
happen! But once again, let it be a considered approach rather than
haphazard. The organization would not have gone through the changes
that it has without a clear need to do so. It remains to those left to address
that need – be it cost-efficiency, productivity, culture change or merger.
The more that individuals and teams can be involved in shaping the orga-
nization’s future, the greater will be the engagement and commitment,
and the greater the chances of success.
Level four: embedding the changes
Level four interventions occur at a whole-system level. One option – the
laissez-faire or reactive one – is to pretend that nothing much has changed.
In terms of Satir ’s model, as described by Weinberg (1997), the organiza-
tion can fail to really address or redress the situation. It could:
• try to reject foreign elements;
• try to accommodate foreign elements in its old model;
• try to transform the old model to receive foreign elements, but fail.
Any of these options creates a scenario in which the changes are not
sustainable. Noer suggests embedding any changes made into the new
way of working. This includes:
• creating structural systems and processes that treat and/or prevent
survivor syndrome symptoms;
• redefining the psychological contract – being clear about what the
new deal now is between employer and employee;
• enacting and embodying the new culture and its values if that is one
of the stated objectives;
• ensuring all HR practices and management style are aligned with the
espoused culture.

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214
Key lessons that Noer teaches us are:
• to address change on both the task and people level;
• to pay attention, not only to what individuals and groups are going
through now, but also the tasks necessary to move the organization
along; to use these tasks to engage people as they come out of the
more negative aspects of the change curve;
• to take the opportunity of the turbulence of the situation to embed
into the organization those structures, systems and processes that will
be necessary to sustain the changes in the longer term.
ENABLING TEAMS TO ADDRESS
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Teams are often strongly impacted by restructuring processes. Their
composition changes, or they have a new leader, or maybe they have a
new purpose. There needs to be a process for quickly establishing indi-
vidual and team roles, responsibilities and priorities.
Issues that teams and groups have to contend with during periods of
organizational change brought about by restructuring include:
• loss of individual roles and jobs;
• new individual roles and jobs;
• loss of team members;
• new team members;
• new team purpose and objectives;
• new line manager;
• new organizational or departmental strategy.
Any of these can cause individual members of a team, or the team as a
whole, to experience a range of emotions and new ways of thinking about
their organization, their colleagues and their own career.

Teams need to develop so that their contribution to the organizational
changes can be as good as possible as quickly as possible.
From our consultancy experience we find
one particular framework useful for newly
restructured teams. This framework encom-
passes a number of the issues we have high-
lighted. We encourage teams to work
through the four-part framework in order to
establish quickly the sense of team cohesion
necessary for tasks to be accomplished in a
meaningful and collaborative way. This is
best done in a workshop format.
We have found that if a team spends the
time to focus both on the people and task
side of this process, it will be able to deal with the transition less turbu-
lently than one that has not.
Restructuring
215
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Figure 5.4 The four-stage team alignment model

216 Table 5.4 Addressing team change during restructuring
Forming Storming
Task People Task People
(orientation) (dependency) (organization) (conflict)
Team purpose Establish purpose of Ensure understanding Ensure clarity around Check out individual
change and team and commitment from purpose of change and purpose engagement
objectives in relation to team around change team objectives in to (enrolment,
change. purpose on an relation to change. enlistment,
intellectual and compliance,
emotional level. resistance).
Discuss differences.
Team roles Establish roles and Ensure individuals Ensure clarity of roles Establish degree of
responsibilities of understand their roles and responsibilities of comfort with
whole team and and those of others. whole team and individual roles and
individual members. Establish whether there individual members. establish levels of
are any overlaps or support and
grey areas. challenge required.
Highlight areas of
team tension.
Team processes Highlight the need Establish groundrules Establish processes for Check out levels of
for team processes. for team working. decision making, trust and agreement.
problem solving, Surface areas of team
conflict resolution if not tension.
already in place.

217
Team relations Highlight the need for Establish groundrules Ensure team is agreed Build safe
team processes. for team working. on purpose, objectives, environment for
roles and processes. team to openly
express thoughts and
feelings.
Inter-team Establish dependencies Highlight the need to Establish process for Engage with other
relations on and with other establish protocols with communicating with groupings on how
organizational key organizational other organizational they will work
groupings. groupings. groupings. together.
MBTI™* Ensure balance between Balance between Ensure balance between Ensure that different
high level vision and acknowledging the tying agreements down types are understood
more tangible and business case for the and keeping options and potential pitfalls
specific objectives. change and individuals’ open. and communication
feelings about the barriers.
change.
Key Belbin Co-ordinator, shaper, Co-ordinator, team Co-ordinator, resource Co-ordinator, team
roles plant, implementor. worker. investigator. worker, monitor-
evaluator.
Organizational Ensure alignment of Ensure team members Ensure team structure, Ensure commitment
focus team goals to engage on an roles and responsibilities to organizational
organizational change intellectual and fit with proposed goals and operating
objectives. emotional level with changes and in line with values.
organizational goals. organizational ethos.

218 Table 5.4 Continued
Norming Performing
Task People Task People
(open data flow) (cohesion) (problem solving) (interdependence)
Team purpose Review progress on Review progress, Review progress on Review team
team purpose and recognize achievement. team purpose and performance against
objectives; adjust as objectives; adjust as purpose, recommit as
necessary. necessary. necessary.
Team roles Review roles and Review progress, Review roles and Review individual
responsibilities; adjust recognize achievements responsibilities; adjust role performance and
as necessary. and development areas. as necessary. structure, recognize
Develop strategies for achievement and
improving performance. provide development.
Team processes Review team processes; Review team processes; Review team processes; Review level of team
adjust as necessary. adjust as necessary. adjust as necessary. efficiency; adjust as
Develop strategies for necessary.
improving performance. Develop strategies
for improving
performance.
Team relations Review team relations; Review progress; Review team relations; Reflect upon level of
attend to if necessary. recognize achievement. attend to if necessary. team effectiveness.
Develop strategies for Develop strategies
improving performance. for improving
performance.

219
Inter-team Review level of Review level of Implement actions from Continue to foster
relations inter-team working; inter-team working; review if necessary. good working
plan negotiations if engage others in Develop strategies for relations with other
necessary. negotiating better improving performance. organizational
relations if necessary. groupings.
MBTI™* Review predominate Review team strengths Balance time between Balance time
team type, take and weaknesses and reviewing past between individual
appropriate managerial develop blind spots. performance and and team needs,
action, if necessary. planning future past performance
changes. and future planning.
Key Belbin Monitor-evaluator, Co-ordinator, monitor- Shaper, (plant), Co-ordinator,
roles shaper, implementor, evaluator, team worker. monitor-evaluator, monitor-evaluator,
completer-finisher. completer-finisher. team worker.
Organizational As team begins to Ensure team model Ensure team in all of Ensure team is
focus experience less values and espoused its five elements is operating effectively
turbulence, review behaviours within and performing at an across organizational
alignment with outside of team. effective level. boundaries.
organizational goals
and check team
performance against
milestones.
* MBTI™ = Myers-Briggs Type Indicator™

Four-stage team alignment
1. Understanding one another ’s skills, feelings and values.
It is useful for the team to acknowledge its own journey to where it
is today. This means talking about the individuals, the team and
other influential parts of the organization, and the processes of
changes that have been gone through to arrive at the current situa-
tion. How much of this it is necessary to acknowledge will depend
upon the scale of change and the story so far.
2. Clarifying and prioritizing current work.
The team needs to clarify the current level of demand, and must
work together to satisfy current customer needs.
3. Clarifying and prioritizing future work and direction.
If teams are facing a large change agenda, they can easily become
overwhelmed unless activities are phased and planned. Do-ability
must be convincing. Teams need to take stock of their current
agenda, ensure it is understood, and agree priorities, responsibilities
and timing.
4. Functioning effectively as a team.
The impact of stages 1 to 3 can be extremely demanding on a team.
The team needs to develop clarity about its roles, dynamics, practical-
ities of meetings, phasing of its development activities, communica-
tion and follow-through. Most teams will have deficiencies and
development needs in one or more areas. Teams need to assess where
they need to improve and focus on those areas as a priority.
The specific outcome of this process for individuals and teams is greater
clarity about the practical changes that need to happen and how neces-
sary transformations can be managed.
You will have seen from the chapters on individual and team change
that all individuals and teams undergoing change will progress through
various stages. The four-stage team alignment model above attempts to
address some of the key points from those chapters. Table 5.4 on pages
216–19 brings all the key team factors together as a useful reference.
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CONCLUSION
Restructuring is an ever-present phenomenon in today ’s organizations,
and the process itself can be deeply unrewarding for those who initiate
and those who experience it. We have drawn together ideas in Table 5.4,
from both a task and a people perspective, which will increase the
chances of achieving a smoother journey. However it must be empha-
sized that turbulence is one thing you will not avoid. How you manage it
will be the test of how well you can lead change.
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221

222
6
Mergers and acquisitions
This chapter addresses the specific change scenario of tackling a merger
or an acquisition. We pose the following questions:
• Why do organizations get involved in mergers and acquisitions? Are
there different aims, and therefore different tactics involved in making
this type of activity work?
• Merger and acquisition activity has
been very high over the last 15
years, and at a global scale. We must
have learnt something from all this
activity. What are the conclusions?
• Can the theory of change in individ-
uals, groups and organizations be
used to increase the success rate of
mergers and acquisitions, and if so,
how can it be applied?

The chapter has the following four sections:
• the purpose of merger and acquisition activity;
• lessons from research into successful and unsuccessful mergers and
acquisitions;
• applying the change theory: guidelines for leaders;
• conclusions.
THE PURPOSE OF MERGER AND ACQUISITION ACTIVITY
We begin with a short history of mergers and acquisitions. It is useful to
track the changes in direction that merger and acquisition activity have
gone through over the last 100 years to achieve a sense of perspective on
the different strategies employed. Gaughan (2002) refers to five waves of
merger and acquisition activity since 1897 (see box), claiming that we are
currently in the fifth wave of this ever-evolving field. However activity
has slowed, with reported figures showing a 26 per cent reduction in
global merger and acquisition activity in 2002.
THE FIVE WAVES OF MERGER AND
ACQUISITION ACTIVITY
First wave (1897–1904): horizontal combinations and consolidations of
several industries, US dominated.
Second wave (1916–29): mainly horizontal deals, but also many vertical
deals, US dominated.
Third wave (1965–69): the conglomerate era involving acquisition of
companies in different industries.
Fourth wave: (1981–89): the era of the corporate raider, financed by junk
bonds.
Fifth wave: (1992–?): larger mega mergers, more activity in Europe and
Asia. More strategic mergers designed to compliment company strategy.
Source: adapted from Gaughan (2002)
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It is important to classify types of merger and acquisition to gain an
understanding of the different motivations behind the activity. Gaughan
(2002) points out that there are three types of merger or acquisition deal:
a horizontal deal involves merging with or acquiring a competitor, a
vertical deal involves merging with or acquiring a company with whom
the firm has a supplier or customer relationship, and a conglomerate deal
involves merging with or acquiring a company that is neither a
competitor, nor a buyer nor a seller.
There is a new wave of activity in the UK public sector. It is becoming
more common in the public sector world in the UK for mergers between
public institutions to happen, often for economic reasons, but sometimes
for reasons of synergy.
So why do organizations embark on a merger or acquisition? The main
reasons are listed below.
Growth
Most commercial mergers and acquisitions are about
growth. Merging or acquiring another company
provides a quick way of growing, which avoids the pain
and uncertainty of internally generated growth.
However, it brings with it the risks and challenges of
realizing the intended benefits of this activity. The attrac-
tions of immediate revenue growth must be weighed up
against the downsides of asking management to run an
even larger company.
Growth normally involves acquiring new customers (for example,
Vodafone and Airtouch), but can be about getting access to facilities,
brands, trademarks, technology or even employees.
Synergy
Synergy is a familiar word in the mergers and acquisitions world. If two
organizations are thought to have synergy, this refers to the potential
ability of the two to be more successful when merged than they were apart
(the whole is greater than the sum of the parts). This usually translates into:
• growth in revenues through a newly created or strengthened product
or service (hard to achieve);
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• cost reductions in core operating processes through economies of
scale (easier to achieve);
• financial synergies such as lowering the cost of capital (cost of
borrowing, flotation costs);
• more competent, clearer governance (as in the merger of two hospitals).
However, there may be other gains. Some acquisitions can be motivated
by the belief that the acquiring company has better management skills,
and can therefore manage the acquired company ’s assets and employees
more successfully in the long term and more profitably.
Mergers and acquisitions can also be about strengthening quite
specific areas, such as boosting research capability, or strengthening the
distribution network.
Diversification
Diversification is about growing business outside the company ’s tradi-
tional industry. This type of merger or acquisition was very popular
during the third wave in the 1960s (see box). Although General Electric
(GE) has flourished by following a strategy that embraced both diversifi-
cation and divestiture, many companies following this course have been
far less successful.
Diversification may result from a company’s need to develop a portfolio
through nervousness about the earning potential of its current markets, or
through a desire to enter a more profitable line of business. The latter is a
tough target, and economic theory suggests that a diversification strategy
to gain entry into more profitable areas of business will not be successful
in the long run (see Gaughan, 2002 for more explanation of this).
A classic recent example of this going wrong is Marconi, which tried to
diversify by buying US telecoms businesses. Unfortunately, this was just
before the whole telecoms market crashed, and Marconi suffered badly
from this strategy.
Integration to achieve economic gains or better services
Another increasingly common motive for merger and acquisition activity
is to achieve horizontal integration. A company may decide to merge

with or acquire a competitor to gain market share and increase its
marketing strength.
Public sector organizations may merge purely to achieve cost savings
(often a guiltily held motivation) or to enhance partnership working in
the service of customers.
Vertical integration is also an attraction. A company may decide to
merge with or acquire a customer or a supplier to achieve at least one of
the following:
• a dependable source of supply;
• the ability to demand specialized supply;
• lower costs of supply;
• improved competitive position.
Defensive measures
Some mergers are defensive and are a response to other mergers that
threaten the commercial position of a company.
Pressure to do a deal, any deal
There is often tremendous pressure on the CEO to reinvest cash and
grow reported earnings (Selden and Colvin, 2003). He or she may be
being advised to make the deal quickly before a competitor does, so much
so that the CEO’s definition of success becomes completion of the deal
rather than the longer-term programme of achieving intended benefits.
This is dangerous because those merging or acquiring when in this frame
of mind can easily overestimate potential revenue increases or costs
savings. In short, they can get carried away.
Feldmann and Spratt (1999) warn of the seductive nature of merger
and acquisition activity. ‘Executives everywhere, but most particularly
those in the world’s largest corporations and institutions, have a knack for
falling prey to their own hype and promotion… Implementation is
simply a detail and shareholder value is just around the corner. This is
quite simply delusional thinking.’
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Table 6.1 Comparison of reasons for embarking on a merger or acquisition
Reason for Advantages Disadvantages Organizational
M&A activity implications
Growth Immediate revenue More work for the Top team required to
growth pleases top team. make a step change
shareholders. Hard to sustain the in performance. New
Reduction in benefits once initial arrivals in top team.
competition (if other savings have been Probably some
party is competitor). made. administrative
Good way of Cultural problems efficiencies.
overcoming barriers often hard to Integration in some
to entry to specific overcome, thus areas if beneficial to
areas of business. potential not realized. results.
Synergy May offer significant, More subtle forms of Top teams need to
easy cost-reduction synergy such as work closely together
benefits. product or service on key areas of
Attractive concept gains may be difficult synergy. Other areas
for employees to realize without left intact.
(unless they have significant effort.
‘heard it all before’). Cultural issues may
cause problems that
are hard to overcome.
Diversification May offer the Economic theory Loosely coupled
possibility for suggests that management teams,
entering new, potential gains of joint reporting, some
inaccessible markets. entering more administrative
Allows company to profitable profit efficiencies, separate
expand its portfolio streams may not be identities and logos.
if uncertain about realized.
current business May be hard for top
levels. team to agree
strategy due to little
understanding of
each other ’s business
areas.

LESSONS FROM RESEARCH INTO SUCCESSFUL AND
UNSUCCESSFUL MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
The following quote from Selden and Colvin (2003) gives us a starting point:
70% to 80% of acquisitions fail, meaning they create no wealth for the share
owners of the acquiring company. Most often, in fact, they destroy wealth…
Deal volume during the historic M&A wave of 1995 to 2000 totalled more
than $12 trillion. By an extremely conservative estimate, these deals anni-
hilated at least $1 trillion of share-owner wealth.
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Table 6.1 Continued
Reason for Advantages Disadvantages Organizational
M&A activity implications
Integration Buyer or supplier More work for the Integated top team,
power automatically top team. merged
reduced if other party In the case of administrative
is buyer or supplier. horizontal integration systems, tightly
More control of (other party is a coupled core
customer demands competitor), cultural processes, single
or supply chain problems often hard corporate identity,
respectively. to overcome, thus better partnership
Better partnership potential not realized. working, pooled
desired for public Complex ‘dual’ resources, better
sector organizations. structures often services.
Reduction in result to spare egos.
competition (if other
party is competitor).
Increase in market
share/marketing
strength.
Defensive Enhance the May be very If managed well, it
measure company ’s unexpected for staff leads to greater
commercial position and low performance commercial strength.
in the face of weighty can result from
competition. confusion.
Deal doing Seductive and thrilling. The excitement of the Anyone’s guess!
Publicity surrounding deal may cloud the
the deal augments CEO’s judgement.
the CEO’s and the
company ’s profile.

Selden and Colvin put the problems down to companies failing to look
beyond the lure of profits. They urge CEOs to examine the balance
sheet, and say that M&As should be seen as a way to create shareholder
value through customers, and should start with an analysis of customer
profitability.
However, this contrasting quote from Alex Mandl, CEO of Teligent
since 1996, in a Harvard Business Review interview (Carey, 2000) provides a
different view:
I would take issue with the idea that most mergers end up being failures. I
know there are studies in the 1970s and 80’s that will tell you that. But when
I look at many companies today – particularly new economy companies like
Cisco and WorldCom – I have a hard time dismissing the strategic power of
M&A. In the last three years, growth through acquisition has been a critical
part of the success of many companies operating in the new economy.
Carey ’s interview occurred before the collapse of Enron and WorldCom,
so he did not know what we know now. The recent demise of both Enron
and WorldCom due to major scandals over illegal accounting practices
has considerably dampened enthusiasm for merger and acquisition
activity worldwide. These events have raised big questions about compa-
nies that finance continuous acquisitions as a core business strategy. The
use of what BusinessWeek describes as ‘new era’ accounting is making
investors nervous, and causing companies to be very careful with their
investments and their financial reporting.
Public sector mergers, such as the Inland Revenue merging with
Customs and Excise in the UK, have been plagued with problems, and in
full public view. However, the Ofcom merger, which brought together
five regulators into one organization, was seen as a great success.
The National Audit Office blame the public sector merger difficulties on
the leadership vacuum between those who decide on the merger and
those who are to implement it. Also, the amount of time taken by the
legislative process and consultation requirements leads to much greater
uncertainty for staff and stakeholders than in the private sector.
The discussion about the overall success rate of merger and acquisition
activity still continues. But what lessons can be learnt from previous expe-
rience of undertaking these types of organizational change?
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CASE STUDY OF SUCCESS: ISPAT
Ispat is an international steel-making company which successfully
pursues long-term acquisition strategies. It is one of the world’s largest
steel companies and its growth has come almost entirely through a
decade-long series of acquisitions.
Ispat’s acquisitions are strictly focused. It never goes outside its core
business. It has a well-honed due diligence process which it uses to learn
about the people who are running the target company and convince
them that joining Ispat will give them an opportunity to grow.
The company works with the potential acquisition’s management to
develop a five-year business plan that will not only provide an acceptable
return on investment, but chime with Ispat’s overall strategy.
Ispat relies on a team of 12 to 14 professionals to manage its acquisi-
tions. Based in London, the team’s members have solid operational
backgrounds and have worked together since 1991.
We have taken several different sources, all of which propose a set of rules
for mergers and acquisitions, and distilled these into five learning points:
• Communicate constantly.
• Get the structure right.
• Tackle the cultural issues.
• Keep customers on board.
• Use a clear overall process.
Communicate constantly
In the excitement of the deal, company bosses often forget that the merger
or acquisition is more than a financial deal or a strategic opportunity. It is
a human transaction between people too. Top managers need to do more
than simply state the facts and figures; they need to employ all sorts of
methods of communication to enhance relationships, establish trust, get
people to think and innovate together and build commitment to a joint
future. They also need to use all the avenues available to them such as:
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• company presentations;
• formal question and answer sessions;
• newsletters;
• team briefings;
• noticeboards;
• newsletters;
• e-mail communication;
• confidential helplines;
• websites with questions and answer session;
• conference calls.
COMMUNICATE CONSTANTLY
The top team had been working on the acquisition plans for over four
months. Once the announcement was eventually made to all employees
I just wanted to get on with things. I had so much enthusiasm for the deal.
There was just endless business potential.
The difficulties came when I realized that not everyone shared my
enthusiasm. My direct reports and their direct reports constantly asked
me detailed questions about job roles and terms and conditions. It was
beginning to really frustrate me that they couldn’t see the big picture.
I found I had to talk about our visions for the future and our schedule
for sorting out the structure at least five times a day, if not more. People
needed to hear and see me say it, and needed me to keep on saying it.
I learnt to keep my cool when repeating myself for the fifth time that day.
MD of acquiring company
Devine (1999) of Roffey Park says that managers with merger and acquisi-
tion experience tend to agree that it is impossible to over-communicate
during a merger. They advocate the use of specific opportunities for staff to
discuss company communications. They also advise managers to encourage
their people to read e-mails and attend communication meetings, watching
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out for those who might be inclined to stick their heads in the sand.
Managers need to be prepared as regards formal communications:
• Develop your answers to tricky questions before you meet up with
the team.
• Expect some negative reactions and decide how to handle these.
• Be prepared to be open about the extent of your own knowledge.
Carey (2000) says it is necessary to have constant communication to coun-
teract rumours. He advises, ‘When a company is acquired, people become
extremely sensitive to every announcement. Managers need to constantly
communicate to avoid the seizure that may come from over-reaction to
badly delivered news.’
In company communications, it is very important to be clear on
timescales, particularly when it comes to defining the new structure.
People want to know how this merger or acquisition will affect them, and
when. Carey says, ‘Everyone will be focused on the question “what
happens to me?” They will not hear presentations about vision or
strategic plans. They need the basic question regarding their own fate to
be answered. If this cannot be done, then the management team should
at least publish a plan for when it will be done.’
PRODUCTIVITY LEVELS DURING TIMES OF CHANGE
A very interesting statistic I once read says that people are normally productive
for about 5–7 hours in an eight-hour business day. But any time a change of
control takes place, their productivity falls to less than an hour.
Dennis Kozlowski, CEO Tyco International, quoted in Carey (2000)
In the public sector this challenge is even greater because of extended
timescales. The National Audit Office recommends that regular commu-
nications need to be clear about what has been decided and what has yet
to be decided.

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Get the structure right
THE IMPORTANCE OF DECISIONS
ABOUT STRUCTURE
At the time we thought it best to keep everyone happy and productive. Both
the merged companies had good production managers, so we decided to ask
them to work alongside each other, to share skills and learn a bit about the
other person’s way of working.
We thought this was the best idea to keep production high, and to promote
harmony and learning. However, in the end it turned out to be highly unpro-
ductive. It was a huge strain for the two individuals involved in both cases. They
thought they were being set up to compete, despite protestations that this was
not so. Both began to show signs of stress.
This structural decision (or rather indecision) also slowed the integration
process down as people wanted to stay loyal to their original manager. They
studiously avoided reporting at all to the new manager from the other
company. Joint projects ended in stalemate and integration of working stan-
dards was almost impossible to achieve.
HR Director, involved in designing structure for merger
Structure is always a thorny issue for merging or acquiring companies.
How do you create a structure that keeps the best of what is already there,
while providing opportunities for the team to achieve the stretching
targets that you aspire to?
Carey makes the point that it is essential to match the new company
structure to the logic of the acquisition. If for example the intention was
to fully integrate two sales teams to provide cost savings in administration
and improve sales capability, then the structure should reflect this. It is
tempting for senior managers to avoid conflict by appointing joint
managers. Although this may work for the managers, it does not usually
work for the teams. Integration becomes hard work as individuals prefer
to keep reporting lines as they were.
Structure work should start early. Carey advises managers to begin
working on the new structure before the deal is closed. Some companies
use an integration team to work on this sort of planning. These people are

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in the ideal position to ask the CEO, ‘What was the intended gain of this
acquisition?’ and ‘How will this structure support our goals?’
It is important that promotion opportunities provided by merger or
acquisition activity are seen as golden opportunities for communicating
the goals and values of the new company. Feldmann and Spratt (1999)
warn against ‘putting turtles on fence posts’. They emphasize the
importance of providing good role models, and encourage senior
managers to promote only those who provide good examples of how
they want things to be. They say ‘do not compromise on selection by
indulging in a quota system (two of theirs and two of ours)’. And do not
be tempted to fudge roles so that both people think they have got the
best deal. This will only result in arguments and friction further down
the line.
In public sector mergers a decision-making vacuum should be avoided
by making it clear who is responsible for each phase, even if officers are
not finally in position.
Tackle the cultural issues
Issues of cultural incompatibility have
often been cited as problem areas when
implementing a merger or acquisition.
Merging a US and a European company
can be complicated because manage-
ment styles are very different. For
instance US companies are known to be
more aggressive with cost cutting, while
European companies may take a longer
view. Reward strategy and degree of centralization are also areas of differ-
ence. Jan Leschly, CEO of SmithKline Beecham, says in ‘Lessons for master
acquirers’ (in Carey, 2000), ‘The British and American philosophies are so
far apart on those subjects they’re almost impossible to reconcile.’
David Komansky, CEO of Merrill Lynch, made over 18 acquisitions
between 1996 and 2001. In the same HBR article (Carey, 2000), he says:
It’s totally futile to impose a U.S.-centric culture on a global organization. We
think of our business as a broad road within the bounds of our strategy and
our principles of doing business. We don’t expect them to march down the
white line, and, frankly, we don’t care too much if they are on the left-hand

side of the road or the right-hand side of the road. You need to adapt to local
ways of doing things.
The amount of cultural integration required depends on the reason for
the merger or acquisition. If core processes are to be combined for
economies of scale, then integration is important and needs to be given
management time and attention. However, if the company acquires a
portfolio of diverse businesses it is possible that culture integration will
only be necessary at the senior management level.
The best way to integrate cultures is to get people working together
on solving business problems and achieving results that could not have
been achieved before the merger or acquisition. In ‘Making the deal
real’ (Ashkenas, Demonaco and Francis, 1998), the authors have distilled
their acquisition experiences at GE into four steps intended to bridge
cultural gaps:
• Welcome and meet early with the new acquisition management team.
Create a 100-day plan with their help.
• Communicate and keep the process going. Pay attention to audience,
timing, mode and message. This does not just mean bulletins, but
videos, memos, town meetings and visits from management.
• Address cultural issues head-on by running a focused, facilitated
‘cultural workout’ workshop with the new acquisition management
team. This is grounded on analysis of cultural issues and focused on
costs, brands, customers and technology.
• Cascade the integration process through, giving others access to a
cultural workout.
Roffey Park research (Devine, 1999) confirms the need to tackle cultural
issues. This research shows that culture clashes are the main source of
merger failure and can cost as much as 25–30 per cent in lost performance.
They identify some of the signs of a culture clash:
• people talk in terms of ‘them and us’;
• people glorify the past, talking of the ‘good old days’;
• newcomers are vilified;
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• there is obvious conflict – arguments, refusal to share information,
forming coalitions;
• one party in the merger is portrayed as ‘stronger ’ and the other as
‘weaker ’.
Therefore an examination of existing cultures is normally useful if there is
even a small possibility that cultural issues will get in the way of the
merger or acquisition being successful. This is a good exercise to carry out
in workshop format with the teams themselves at all levels. The best time
to look at cultural issues is when teams are forming right at the start of the
integration. It breaks the ice for people and allows them to find out a bit
about each other ’s history and company culture.
TACKLING THE CULTURAL ISSUES
The managers from company A described their culture as:
• fairly formal;
• courteous and caring;
• high standards;
• lots of team work;
• clear roles.
Company B added:
• precise;
• good reputation.
The managers from company B described their culture as:
• highly informal;
• a bit disorganized;
• relationships are important;
• customer focused;
• fast and fun.
Company A added:
• flexible roles;
• lack of hierarchy.

New culture – what did they need:
• role clarity;
• adaptability;
• high standards;
• customer focus;
• responsiveness;
• enjoyment;
• team work.
What might be the difficult areas:
• Balancing clarity of roles with adaptability – culture clash?
• Achieving high standards without getting too formal.
• Being responsive while keeping to high standards.
• Working as one team, rather than two teams.
Action plan:
1. Define flexible roles for all management team. Must be half page long.
2. Highlight areas where standards need to be reviewed.
3. Audit customer responsiveness and set targets.
4. Tackle each of the above by creating small task force with members
from both companies.
Output from a management team meeting focusing on building a
new culture
Cultural differences can be looked at using a simple cultural model such as
the one offered in Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding cultural diversity
in business by Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner (1997). See
Figure 6.1 for our representation of the various scales. People from each
merger partner mark themselves on these scales and openly compare scores.
In the workshop it is useful to ask the team to predict what kind of difficul-
ties they might have as they start to work together, and to make an action
plan to address these. We have run several such workshops, and in these we
strongly encourage people to try to work together to define the new culture.
This can be challenging work, especially if the acquisition or merger is
perceived as hostile, but necessary work if any sort of integration is desired.
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Roffey Park’s advice appears below:
• Identify the key tactics used by team members to adhere to their own
cultures.
• Identify cultural ‘hot-spots’, highly obvious differences in working
practices that generate tension and conflict.
• Using a cultural model, get team members to explore the traits of their
cultures, ask them what was good or bad about their former cultures.
• Get your people to identify cultural values of meanings that are
important to them and that they wish to preserve.
• Challenge team members to identify a cluster of values that everyone
can commit to and use as a foundation for working together.
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Cultural dimensions
Rule versus
relationships
Universalist
Focus on rules
Particularist
Focus on
relationships
The group versus
the individual
Individualism
More use of ‘I’
Communitarianism
More use of ‘We’
The range of
feelings expressed
Neutral
Do not reveal
thoughts and
feelings
Affective
Reveal thoughts
and feelings
The range of
involvement
Specific
Direct
Diffuse
Indirect
How status is
accorded
Achievement
oriented
Use titles only
when relevant to
task
Ascription oriented
Extensive use of
titles
Figure 6.1 Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimensions
Source: Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997)

Keep customers on board
Customers feel the effects first… They don’t care about your internal prob-
lems, and they most certainly aren’t going to pay you to fix them.
(Feldmann and Spratt, 1999)
‘It’s very easy to be so focused on the deal that customers are forgotten.
Early plans for who will control customer relationships after the merger
or acquisition are essential,’ says Carey (2000). Devine (1999) adds weight
to this by commenting:
Mergers are often highly charged and unpredictable experiences. It is all too
easy to take your eye off the ball and to forget the very reason for your exis-
tence. Ensure that your team concentrates on work deliverables so that
everyone remembers that there is a world outside and that it is still as
competitive and pressurized as ever. Help everyone to realize that your
competitors will be on the lookout for opportunities to exploit any weak-
nesses arising from the merger. You might find that in the face of an external
threat, cultural differences shrink in importance.
Some of our experiences as consultants contradict the idea that increased
focus on the customer can help a team to forget cultural differences. The
opposite effect can happen, where teams and individuals from the two
original merging companies use customer focus to further accentuate
cultural difficulties:
• sales people fight over customers and territory;
• managers blame each other rather than help each other when
accounts are lost;
• people from company A apologize to customers for the ‘shortcom-
ings’ of people from company B rather than back them up.
This lesson accentuates the need to tackle cultural issues early, as well as
to define clear groundrules for working with customers as one team.
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HOW TO KEEP CUSTOMERS ON BOARD
One of our first actions was to embark on a series of customer visits that
involved a senior sales person from both the merging companies. This allowed
us to learn how to work together, and fast! It reassured customers and allowed
us to deliver a clear message:
• we were now one company;
• there would be a single point of contact going forward;
• the merger was amicable and well managed.
Sales Manager from merged retail company
AVOIDING THE SEVEN DEADLY SINS
Feldmann and Spratt (1999) identify seven deadly sins in implementing a
merger or acquisition. Their book goes on to describe in detail how to
ensure that you avoid these problems.
• Sin 1: Obsessive list making. Don’t make lists of everything that
needs to be done – it is exhausting and demoralizing. Instead, use the
80:20 rule. Focus on the 20 per cent of tasks that add the most value.
• Sin 2: Content-free communications. Don’t send out communica-
tions that contain only hype and promotion. Employees, customers,
suppliers and shareholders all have real questions, so answer them.
• Sin 3: Creating a planning circus. Use targeted task forces, rather
than a hierarchy of slow-paced committees.
• Sin 4: Barnyard behaviour. Unless roles and relationships are clari-
fied, feathers will fly in an attempt to establish pecking order. Simply
labelling the hierarchy will not sort this one out.
• Sin 5: Preaching vision and values. If you want cultural change, you
have to work at it. It will not happen through proclamation.
• Sin 6: Putting turtles on fence posts. Ensure that the role models
you select for promotion provide good examples of how you want
things to be. Do not compromise on selection by indulging in a quota
system (two of theirs and two of ours).
• Sin 7: Rewarding the wrong behaviours. Sort out compensation and
link it to the right behaviours.

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Use a clear overall process
The pitfalls associated with planning and successfully executing a merger
or acquisition imply that it is important to have an overarching process to
work to. GE’s Pathfinder Model is summarized in Table 6.2. It acts as a
useful checklist for those involved in acquisition work (more in Ashkenas,
Demonaco and Francis, 1998). This model, derived through internal
discussion and review, forms the basis for GE’s acquisitions programme.
Table 6.2 Adapted version of GE’s Pathfinder Model
Preacquisition • Assess cultural strengths and potential barriers to integration.
• Appoint integration manager.
• Rate key managers of core units.
• Develop strategy for communicating intentions and progress.
Foundation • Induct new executives into acquiring company ’s core
building processes.
• Jointly work on short and long-term business plans with new
executives.
• Visibly involve senior people.
• Allocate the right resources and appoint the right people.
Rapid • Speed up integration by running cultural workshops and
Integration doing intensive joint process mapping.
• Conduct process audits.
• Pay attention to and learn from feedback as you go along.
• Exchange managers for short-term learning opportunities.
Assimilation • Keep on learning and developing shared tools, language,
processes.
• Continue longer-term management exchanges.
• Make use of training and development facilities to keep the
learning going.
• Audit the integration process
Source: Ashkenas, Demonaco and Francis (1998)

USE A CLEAR PHASED PROCESS
It’s easy to get sucked into mindless list generation. There is an extraordinary
amount of stuff to be done when you merge with another company. The
trouble is that list making is very tiring, and the lists have to be numbered and
monitored, which takes time and effort. We found that it was much simpler to
develop a phased process than to list everything that needed to be done. We
then created a timeline with obvious milestones such as ‘structure chart deliv-
ered’, or ‘terms and conditions harmonized’. This helps people to keep on
track without creating a circus of action planning and reporting.
Organization development manager talking about the merger
of two management consultancies
The National Audit Office recommends specialist programme manage-
ment help to ensure continued business as usual, and to tackle HR,
finance and particularly pensions issues.
APPLYING THE CHANGE THEORY:
GUIDELINES FOR LEADERS
Which elements of the theory discussed in earlier chapters can be used to
inform those leading merger and acquisition activity? We make links with
ideas about individual, team and organizational change to help leaders to
channel their activities throughout this turbulent process. In addition, we
refer to the previously mentioned research into successful mergers and
acquisitions by Roffey Park Institute (Devine, 1999) which offers some
useful guidelines for organizational leaders.
Managing the individuals
Mergers and acquisitions bring uncertainty, and uncertainty in turn brings
anxiety. The question on every person’s mind is, ‘What happens to me in
this?’ Once this question is answered satisfactorily, each individual can then
begin to address the important challenges ahead. Until that time, there will
be anxiety. Some people will be more anxious than others depending on
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their personal style, personal history and proximity to the proposed changes.
And if people do not like the look of the future, there will be a reaction.
The job of the leader in a merger or acquisition situation is firstly to ensure
that the team know things will not be the same any more. Second, he or she
needs to ensure people understand what will change, what will stay the
same, and when all this will happen. Third, the leader needs to provide the
right environment for people to try out new ways of doing things.
Schein (see Chapter 1) claims that healthy individual change happens
when there is a good balance between anxiety about the future and
anxiety about trying out new ways of working. The first anxiety must be
greater than the second, but the first must not be too high, otherwise
there will be paralysis or chaos.
In a merger or acquisition situation there is very little safety. People are
anxious about their futures as well as uncertain about what new behaviours
are required. This means the leader has to create psychological safety by:
• painting pictures of the future (visioning);
• acting as a strong role model of desired behaviours;
• being consistent about systems and structures.
But not by:
• avoiding the truth;
• saying that nothing will change;
• hiding from the team;
• putting off the delivery of bad news.
Chapter 1 addressed individual change by first introducing four schools
of thought:
• behavioural;
• cognitive;
• psychodynamic;
• humanistic.
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The behavioural model is useful as a reminder that reward strategies form
an important part of the merger and acquisition process and must be
addressed reasonably early. The cognitive model is based on the premise
that our thinking affects our behaviour. This means that goal setting and
role modelling too are important.
However, the psychodynamic approach provides the most useful
model to explain the process of individual change during the various
stages of a merger or acquisition. In Table 6.3 we use the Kubler-Ross
model from Chapter 1 to illustrate individual experiences of change and
effective management interventions during this process of change.
Managing the team
Endings and beginnings are important features of mergers and acquisi-
tions, and these are most usefully addressed at the team level. The ideas
of William Bridges (Chapter 3) provide a useful template for management
activity during ending, the neutral zone and the new beginnings that
occur during a merger or acquisition.
Managing endings
The endings are about saying goodbye to the old way of things. This
might be specific ways of working, a familiar building, team mates, a high
level of autonomy or some well-loved traditions. In the current era of
belt-tightening and cost-cutting, there might be quite a lot of losses for
people, similar to the effects of a restructuring exercise. (See Chapter 1 for
more tips on handling redundancies.) Here is some advice for how
managers can manage the ending phase (or how to get them to let go):
• Acknowledge that the old company is ending, or the old ways of
doing things are ending.
• Give people time to grieve for the loss of familiar people if redundan-
cies are made. Publish news of their progress in newsletters.
• Do something to mark the ending: for example have a team drink
together specifically to acknowledge the last day of trading as the
old company.
• Be respectful about the past. It is tempting to denigrate the old manage-
ment team or the old ways of working to make the new company look
more attractive. This will not work. It will just create resentment.
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Table 6.3 Stages of merger or acquisition process and how to manage
reactions of staff
Stage Employee experience Management action
Merger or Shock. Give full and early communication of
acquisition is Disbelief. reasons behind, and aims of this merger
announced Relief that rumours or acquisition.
are confirmed.
Specific plans Denial – it’s not Discuss implications of the merger or
are announced really happening. acquisition with individuals and team.
Mixture of Give people a timescale for clarification of
excitement and the new structure and when they will know
anxiety. what their role will be in the new company.
Anger and blame – Acknowledge people’s needs and concerns
‘This is all about even though you cannot solve them all.
greed’, ‘If we’d won Be patient with people’s concerns.
the ABC contract Be clear about the future. Find out and get
we wouldn’t be in back to them about the details you do not
this position now.’ know yet.
Do not take their emotional outbursts
personally.
Changes start to Depression – finally Acknowledge the ending of an era.
happen – letting go of two Hold a wake for the old company and
new bosses, companies, and keep one or two bits of memorabilia
new customers, accepting the new (photos, T-shirts).
new colleagues, company. Delegate new responsibilities to your team.
redundancies Acceptance. Encourage experimentation, especially with
building new relationships.
Give positive feedback when people take
risks.
Create new joint goals.
Discuss and agree new groundrules for the
new team.
Coach in new skills and behaviours.
New organization Trying new things Encourage risk taking.
begins to take out. Foster communication at all levels between
shape Finding new the two parties.
meaning. Create development opportunities, especially
Optimism. where people can learn from new colleagues.
New energy. Discuss new values and ways of working.
Reflect on experience, reviewing how much
things have changed since the start.
Celebrate successes as one group.

Managing the transition from old to new
This phase of a merger or acquisition, often known as integration, can be
chaotic if it is not well managed. The ‘barnyard behaviour ’ mentioned
above combined with high anxiety about the future can lead to good
people leaving and stress levels reaching all-time highs. Conflicts that are
not nipped in the bud at this stage can lead to huge and permanent rifts
between the two companies involved.
Tuckman’s model of team development is useful to explain what goes on
in a new merged management team, or a newly merged sales team. We have
also added some suggestions for how to manage these phases. See Table 6.4.
Timing for this stage is also important. The integration stage should
neither be squeezed into an impossible two-week period, nor be treated
as an open-ended process that continues unaided for years. The need to
squeeze this phase into a two-week period comes from management
denial of the very existence of integration issues. Conversely, the need to
let things take their course over time comes from a belief that time will
solve all the issues and they cannot be hurried. Therefore they are
allowed to drag on and possibly get worse, and more entrenched.
Bridges offers advice about managing the integration phase which we
have adapted to be directly useful for mergers and acquisitions:
• Explain that the integration phase will be hard work and will need
(and get) attention.
• Set short-range goals and checkpoints.
• Encourage experimentation and risk taking.
• Encourage people to brainstorm with members of the new company
to find answers to both old and new problems.
Managing beginnings
It is important to recognize when the timing is right to celebrate a new
beginning. Managers need to be careful not to declare victory too soon.
Here are some ideas for this phase:
• Be really clear about the purpose of the merger or acquisition, and
keep coming back to this as your bedrock.
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• Paint a vision of the future for you and your team, describing an
attractive future for those listening. (ROCE or ROI just doesn’t do it
for most people!)
• Act as a role model by integrating well at your own level, and being
seen to be doing so.
• Do something specific to celebrate a new beginning.
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Table 6.4 How to manage the development of a merged team
Stage Team activity Advice for leaders
Forming • Confusion Be very clear about roles and
• Uncertainty responsibilities in the new company.
• Assessing situation Talk about where people have come
• Testing ground rules from in terms of the structure,
• Feeling out others process and culture in their
• Defining goals previous situation.
• Getting acquainted Compare notes.
• Establishing rules Define key customers for the team
and begin to agree new groundrules
for how the team will work together.
Storming • Disagreement over Make time for team to discuss
priorities important issues.
• Struggle for leadership Be patient.
• Tension Be clear on direction and purpose
• Hostility of the team.
• Clique formation Nip conflict between cultures and
people in the bud by talking to
those involved.
Norming • Consensus Develop decision-making process.
• Leadership accepted Maintain flexibility by reviewing
• Trust established goals and process.
• Standards set
• New stable roles
• Cooperation
Performing • Successful performance Delegate more.
• Flexible task roles Stretch people.
• Openness Encourage innovation.
• Helpfulness

Managing yourself
There are many challenges ahead for managers as they enter a merger or
acquisition. Managers may be uncertain about their own position, while
attempting to reassure others about theirs. They may even be considering
their options outside the organization while encouraging others to wait
and see how things turn out.
Other difficulties include the overwhelming needs of team members
for clarity, reassurance and management time. Managers find them-
selves repeating information again and again, and become frustrated
with their team’s inability to ‘move on’. A glance at the Kubler-Ross
curves pictured in Figure 6.2 will reveal that this problem comes from
managers and their teams being out of ‘sync’ in terms of their emotional
reactions. While the manager is accepting the situation and trying out
new ideas, the team is going through shock, denial, anger and blame.
This is quite a stark mismatch!
Devine (1999) offers a checklist for line managers:
• Get involved. Try to get in on the action and away from business as
usual. Show you are capable of dealing with change.
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Figure 6.2 Change curve comparisons

• Get informed. Find out who is going up or down, especially among
your sponsors or mentors. Have a ‘replacement’ boss you can turn to
if your current one leaves.
• Get to know people. Network hard, get to know the people in the
other company. Do not think of them as ‘the enemy ’.
• Deal with your feelings. Openly recognize feelings of anxiety and
frustration. Form a support network and discuss these feelings with
colleagues.
• Actively manage your career. Think carefully before moving func-
tion/role at the time of a merger. You are remembered for your current
job, whatever your past experience. Do not necessarily accept the first
role that is offered to you. Decide what you would like to do, prepare
your CV and work towards it – everything is up for grabs!
• Identify success criteria. Often performance criteria have changed
or become unclear. Re-benchmark yourself by talking to people
involved in the merger. Get informal feedback from subordinates,
peers and bosses.
• Be positive. Be philosophical and objective about what is under your
control. Do not beat yourself up – you can’t win ‘em all.
Handling difficult appointment and exit decisions
Mergers and acquisitions often involve a restructuring process, which in
turn involves managers in making difficult appointment and exit deci-
sions. These decisions need to be fair, transparent, justified, swift and
carried out with attention to people’s dignity.
In one company that we know of, top management decided to reveal
the newly merged company ’s structure chart in a formal town hall
meeting of all staff. Those who did not appear on the chart had to make
their own conclusions. You can imagine the resentment and lack of trust
that this foolish and undignified process generated.
Devine advises:
• New appointments need to be seen to be fair. Try to ensure that selec-
tion criteria are objective, transparent and widely understood.
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• Stick to company policy and processes. Do not take short-cuts as they
are likely to backfire on you.
• Do not dither. This will cause resentment.
• Treat employees at every level with dignity.
Managing the organization
It is important to select and agree a change process that matches the chal-
lenges posed by the specific merger and acquisition. If the most important
challenge is to achieve cost-cutting goals, then project management tech-
niques can be applied and the changes made swiftly. This may mean the
use of a task force to make recommendations, and the agreement of a
linear process for delivering the cost-cutting goals. However, if the most
important challenges are integration issues or cultural issues, then the
ideas of both Bridges and Senge are relevant. Attention must be paid to
managing endings, transitions and beginnings for specific teams involved
in significant processes. Other teams may remain untouched.
We have used the Kotter model, introduced in Chapter 3, to illustrate
the steps from initial news of the deal to full integration. This model is
useful because it combines a range of different assumptions about
change, so tackles the widest range of possible challenges.
1. Establish a sense of urgency. This is a tough balancing act for manage-
ment. They must start to raise the issues that have led to the merger or
acquisition without revealing the deal itself. For instance if the
company is currently in a dwindling marketplace, then managers
should highlight the need to do something about this, without neces-
sarily revealing any intentions to buy or to merge. People will be suspi-
cious and resentful of a deal that does not make any sense. ‘Why are
we diversifying now? I thought the plan was to buy the competition!’
2. Form a powerful guiding coalition. Managers of both companies
need to begin working together as soon as they can. They need to
spend time together and build a bit of trust. When the deal is
announced, managers will then be able to work together at speed.
3. Create a new vision. A top-level vision for the new company must be
built by the new top management team. This vision will be used to
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guide the integration effort and to develop clear strategies for
achieving this. The integration effort needs to be targeted in specific
areas rather than be a blanket process, and clear timescales for imple-
mentation must be given.
The new structure needs to be put quickly into place, a level at a
time, ensuring that customers are well managed throughout. The
new sales and customer service structure is therefore also a
priority. New values and ways of working should also be discussed
and identified.
4. Communicate the vision. Kotter emphasizes the need to communi-
cate at least 10 times the amount you expect to have to communicate.
In addition, all the research about mergers and acquisitions indicates
that it is impossible to over-communicate. Managers need to be
creative with their communication strategies, and remember to work
hard at getting the two companies to build relationships at all levels.
The vision and accompanying strategies and new behaviours will
need to be communicated in a variety of different ways: formal
communications, role modelling, recruitment decisions and promo-
tion decisions. The guiding coalition should be the first to role model
new behaviours.
5. Empower others to act on the vision. The management team now
need to focus on removing obstacles to change such as structures that
are not working, or cultural issues, or non-integrated systems. At this
stage people are encouraged to experiment with new relationships
and new ways of doing things.
6. Plan for and create short-term wins. Managers should look for and
advertise short-term visible improvements such as joint innovation
projects, or the day-to-day achievements of joint teams. Anything
that demonstrates progress towards the initial aims of the merger or
acquisition is newsworthy. It is important to reward people publicly
for merger-related improvements.
7. Consolidate improvements and produce still more change. Top
managers should make a point of promoting and rewarding those
able to advocate and work towards the new vision. At this point it is
important to energize the process of change with new joint projects,
new resources, change agents.
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8. Institutionalize new approaches. It is vital to ensure that people see
the links between the merger or acquisition and success. If they have
had to work hard to make this initiative happen, they need to see that
it has all been worthwhile.
THE IMPORTANCE OF TRUST WHEN
GOING THROUGH A MERGER
When we were acquired by ITSS we were full of trepidation. Our previous
owners had stripped us of costs and then looked around for a buyer. We felt a
bit used. So we were in no mood to start building trust.
ITSS kept calling this deal a merger, but we were hugely cynical about that.
They had bought us after all. This was a case of vertical integration where a
supplier buys its customer to gain access to primary clients and grow the busi-
ness. We thought they would start to take our jobs and move the company to
their own headquarters, around four hours down the motorway!
The whole thing came to a head one morning when some consultants were
running an integration workshop for the new management team. ITSS were
getting frustrated with our hostility. We were getting angry about their constant
questioning about finances and account management and project costs.
Someone from our company was brave enough to share his emotions.
The MD of ITSS, who is actually a pretty decent guy, sat down amidst us all
and spoke quite calmly for about 10 minutes. He said, ‘Look guys, I will do
anything to make this company a success. Anything. But I need to know what
I’m running here. I can’t take that responsibility without knowing all the facts.
I really want us to make this thing a success. But I need your help.’
After that we trusted him a bit more. Then things got better and better. That
was four years ago. Things have improved every year since then. He kept his
word, and that was really important to everyone.
Project Leader, acquired company

SUMMARY
There are five main reasons for undertaking a merger or acquisition:
• growth;
• synergy;
• diversification;
• integration;
• deal doing.
Recent research indicates that five golden rules should be followed
during mergers and acquisitions:
• Communicate constantly.
• Get the structure right.
• Tackle the cultural issues.
• Keep customers on board.
• Use a clear overall process.
Individuals can be managed through the process using the Kubler-Ross
curve as a basis for understanding how people are likely to react to the
changes. Teams can be managed through endings, transitions and new
beginnings using the advice of Bridges. Tuckman’s forming, storming,
norming, performing process also lends understanding to the sequences of
activities that leaders of new joint teams need to take their teams through.
Managers need to manage themselves well through an integration
process. Roffey Park’s advice is:
• Get involved.
• Get informed.
• Get to know people.
• Deal with your feelings.
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• Actively manage your career.
• Identify success criteria.
• Be positive.
Difficult appointment and exit decisions also need to be well managed
using these principles:
• Be fair.
• Stick to the procedures.
• Do not dither.
• Remember people’s dignity.
Kotter ’s model can be used to plan a merger and acquisition process as it
combines several different assumptions about the change process, so
provides adequate flexibility for the range of different purposes of merger
or acquisition activity.
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255
7
Cultural change
If you were asked to give a new recruit some words of
encouragement on how to be successful within your orga-
nization, what would you say? You might give some formal
advice about carrying your ID at all times, but you might
also make some of the following suggestions:
Keep your head down.
It’s OK to make mistakes here, as long as you don’t repeat them.
The boss likes to see you working really hard at all times.
We work hard but play hard. The people who get on here work
long hours but enjoy themselves in the pub afterwards.
It doesn’t pay to ask too many questions.
You’ll find everyone pulls together here and will want to see you as part of
the team.
With this helpful advice, you begin to educate the person about the way
things get done around the organization. You also reveal what some of
the required behaviours are, and thus you actively reinforce the
prevailing culture.
As Schein (1990) says, culture is the ‘the pattern of basic assumptions
that a given group has invented, discovered or developed in learning to

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cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration,
and that have worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore,
to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and
feel in relation to those problems.’
Culture is not just about induction programmes, it is everywhere in
organizational life. Culture is vitally important for the organization
because of its impact on performance. Molenaar et al (2002), quoting
leading writers in the field, say:
[T]o truly understand corporate culture, its characteristics must also be
understood.
The following is a compilation of the most prevalent cultural characteristics:
Corporate culture represents behaviours that new employees are
encouraged to follow (Kotter and Heskett, 1992)
It creates norms for acceptable behaviour (Hai, 1986)
Corporate culture reinforces ideas and feelings that are consistent
with the corporation’s beliefs (Hampden-Turner, 1990)
It influences the external relations of the corporation, as well as the
internal relations of the employees (Hai, 1986)
Culture can have a powerful effect on individuals and performance
(Kotter and Heskett, 1992)
It affects worker motivation and goals (Hai, 1986)
Behaviours such as innovation, decision making, communication,
organizing, measuring success and rewarding achievement are
affected by corporate culture (Hai, 1986).
If we want to learn about how to change culture, we need to understand
how it is created. Schein (1999) suggests that there are six different ways
in which culture evolves. Some of these can be influenced by leaders and
some cannot:
• a general evolution in which the organization naturally adapts to its
environment;
• a specific evolution of teams or sub-groups within the organization to
their different environments;
• a guided evolution resulting from cultural ‘insights’ on the part of
leaders;

• a guided evolution through encouraging teams to learn from each
other, and empowering selected hybrids from sub-cultures that are
better adapted to current realities;
• a planned and managed culture change through creation of parallel
systems of steering committees and project-oriented task forces;
• a partial or total cultural destruction through new leadership that elim-
inates the carriers of the former culture (turnarounds, bankruptcies, etc).
Schein underscores the fact that organizations will not successfully
change culture if they begin with that specific idea in mind. The starting
point should always be the business issues that the organization faces.
Additionally he suggests that you do not begin with the idea that the
existing culture is somehow totally ‘bad’. He urges leaders to always
begin with the premise that an organization’s culture is a source of
strength. Some of the cultural habits may seem dysfunctional but it is
more viable to build on the existing cultural strengths rather than to focus
on changing those elements that may be considered weaknesses.
This chapter focuses on culture in the context of managing change. We
have chosen not to discuss concepts and theories of organizational culture
as this is done so well elsewhere (see the reference list to get you started). We
have instead decided to share our tips and guidelines on achieving culture
change. These are derived from a variety of experiences of working within
organizations, helping teams and individuals to make significant cultural
shifts. We have also selected three case studies to illustrate the range of ways
in which culture change can be tackled. The structure of this chapter is:
• guidelines for achieving successful cultural change;
• case study one: aligning the organization;
• case study two: rebranding the organization;
• case study three: creating an employer brand.
We wish to introduce the concept of ‘rebranding’ as a way of exploring
cultural change. Our three case studies each take a slightly different
approach to the process of rebranding. The first concerns the challenge of
aligning the organization more closely to customer needs, the second is
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about reflecting the brand in everyday employee interactions with
customers, and the third is about creating an employer brand to enable
the organization to attract and retain the best staff, and to engage the
energy and motivation of all employees.
Extensive academic research in the 1990s (see for instance Kohli and
Jaworski, 1990) has consistently found that organizations with a strong
market focus and brand presence experience better performance, based
on measures such as sales revenue, profitability, growth rates and return
on investment. Additionally a strong market focus has a number of
related benefits including developing strong organizational culture,
success in developing new products and services, sales force job satisfac-
tion and offering a source of competitive advantage. This approach also
aligns with our view that any culture change initiative must have sound
customer-focused objectives at its core.
Internal rebranding is sometimes referred to as internal marketing.
Greene, Walls and Schrest (1994) define internal marketing as ‘the
promoting of the firm and its product(s) or product lines to the firm’s
employees’. Berry and Parasuraman’s (1991) definition is ‘internal
marketing is attracting, developing, motivating, and retaining qualified
employees through job-products that satisfy their needs. Internal
marketing is the philosophy of treating employees as customers.’
However, although these definitions both point us in the right direction,
the important end goal is to ensure that the key components of the brand
are communicated to customers and the wider external audience. The
brand must therefore be understood, believed and exemplified by
customer-facing staff, supported by the rest of the organization.
Crosby and Johnson (2001) conclude:
The strongest brands are those that elicit emotional attachment from
customers. When interacting with your company, customers and prospects
may have feelings of safety, pride, excitement, comfort, confidence, caring, or
trust. These interactions activate feelings and build strong brand commitment.
…it’s important not to overlook the effects of brand on the employees of
the firm. Employees often have a large role to play in managing customer rela-
tionships, and the brand can help guide their behaviour. In effect, the brand is
a promise to customers of how they can expect to be treated by the company.
To the extent employees understand the expectations being created by the
brand, and are motivated and trained to live up to those expectations, then the
firm can have a truly integrated customer relationship management strategy.
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GUIDELINES FOR ACHIEVING SUCCESSFUL
CULTURAL CHANGE
Here we draw together some of the key themes arising from our experi-
ence, which we hope will help you to address the issues of culture change
in your own organization. Specific themes are reflected in the three
chosen case studies, and we pick these out in the separate introductions
to each one later in the chapter.
Always link to organizational vision, mission and objectives
Culture change as an isolated objective is meaningless. Organizations
should only involve themselves in culture change if the current culture
does not adequately support the achievement of strategic objectives. Start
from the business strategy to determine what organization capability or
core competencies need to be developed. Ensure that there is a clear
vision and a real need to change. People need to be convinced by a
compelling vision rather than compelled in a coercive way. They need to
see the overwhelming logic of the proposed changes. The more people
are drawn towards the vision the better.
Create a sense of urgency and continually reinforce the need
to change
The introduction of a foreign element into the organizational system is a
good way of making change happen (see Satir ’s model in Chapter 1). This
can come from an external or internal source. Whatever it is, it needs to
have the force to kick-start the culture change process. And there need to
be plans and processes in place which keep the momentum going.
Attend to stakeholder issues
When you want culture to change you have to put yourself into the
shoes of the stakeholders. Address the issues of the people who need to
change by involving them as much as possible. Change brought in a
crass or unthoughtful way will rebound on management. Whether
change is being proposed for positive or negative reasons the organiza-
tion’s future success is dependent on engaging staff to enter into the
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new way of doing things. How will the proposed changes benefit stake-
holders? Will customers, partners, staff and suppliers really feel a posi-
tive difference? If some parties are going to lose out, how will you
handle this?
Remember that the how is as important as the what
Culture is about the way you do things around the organization. So if
your organization has a set of core values, and of course it does explicitly
or implicitly, then you need to be managing the cultural change in line
with these values. If you say one thing but do another then you might as
well give up now. For instance, a stated value of ‘integrity ’ is rather
hollow if senior managers do not keep their promises, or fail to explain
why the plan has changed.
Build on the old, and step into the new
If you want to shift the organization from one way of doing things to a
new way of doing things then you will need to see and do things from a
variety of perspectives. Any current culture, like any person, will have
positive and negative features. You will need to retain and build on the
current strengths and ensure that you do not throw the baby out with the
bathwater. You will also need to start right now in modelling aspects of
the new culture – if you want a coaching culture then start coaching; if
you want people to be empowered then start empowering! Now is also
the opportunity to step outside of the bubble that you’re in. No one ever
changed a culture by simply drawing up plans and listing required
behaviours, so now is the time to be creative, do things in different ways
and learn from people outside of the system.
Generate enabling mechanisms
It is important to generate enabling mechanisms such as reward systems
and planning and performance management systems that support the
objectives and preferred behaviours of the new culture. For example, this
means ensuring that teams have clear objectives that are closely aligned
to organizational objectives.
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Act as role models
Managers need to act as role models. They will need to model the new
values but also support individuals and teams through a period of
upheaval. This can be done through using some of the strategies outlined
in Chapters 1 and 2, such as working with teams through the stages of
forming and storming, and working with individuals as they adjust to the
new ways of doing things.
Create a community of focused and flexible leaders
On the one hand many people want clear, confident and focused lead-
ership during periods of change; on the other hand people also want
leaders who will reflect upon what is happening ‘on the ground’ and
adjust their plans accordingly. Leadership of cultural change requires
clarity of end vision together with the ability to manage and cope with
emergent issues. All six of Goleman’s leadership styles might be called
for during a period of cultural change (see Chapter 4). However, it
would be a mistake to believe that any one individual could carry this
off by him- or herself. Chapter 4 also describes a number of ways that
leadership can be dispersed throughout the organization to make
change happen.
Insist on collective ownership of the changes
One common trap is to make the HR department the owners of cultural
change, while the CEO and the senior management team own the
changes in business strategy. This type of functional decomposition of a
change initiative is doomed to failure. This generally leads to senior
managers becoming detached from the cultural issues, and thus
neglecting their role modelling responsibilities. Employee cynicism grows
(quite rightly!), and this can become a very powerful force for resisting
change. This division of labour also leads to HR people being lumbered
with programmes and initiatives that look like unnecessary overheads to
the local line leaders, which HR people end up having to ‘push’ and ‘sell’.
This can be a very disheartening outcome, especially when the initial
ideas are often entirely sound.
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CASE STUDY ONE: ALIGNING THE ORGANIZATION
This case study sets out our analysis and recommendations for an organi-
zation facing major strategic and cultural change. Some of these recom-
mendations were taken up, and some withered on the vine, but the
process of analysing and recommending is thought-provoking in itself
and we felt worthy of inclusion here.
Summary of key points arising from the case study
• Even if employees sense the need to change, and want to change, this
is not always enough. In this case study, people were asking for a clear
sense of direction. A clear vision is often required to catalyse action,
especially if it translates well into specific tasks.
• The greater the depth and breadth of people involved in diagnosing
the current state, developing a vision of where the organization
needs to be heading, and generating solutions to bridge the gap, then
the more chance the organization has of gaining sufficient
momentum for change. In this case study, many people were
engaged in the analysis, which led to increased interest and energy
in making things happen.
• The greater the clarity of focus (towards the end user) the greater the
chance one has of aligning people, processes, systems and structures
to this end. Business-as-usual and change initiatives have to be dove-
tailed. It is no use if there are 101 initiatives that are not joined up and
working with one another.
• Processes and standards must support the desired behaviours. An
organization cannot strive for a quality service, for instance, if the
culture does not support people doing quality things. It is of little
value if the customer services assistant is exceedingly pleasant but not
empowered to take decisions when the customer needs a decision.
• Managers and staff need to be supported through the transition
process with the necessary coaching and training. For the organization
to become more focused, efficient and effective people have to be
doing something different. Speedier rubbish collection will not
impress the public if a trail of litter is left after each collection. Not only
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do these changes have to be communicated clearly, they also have to
be followed by the necessary skills development and induction.
• Organizations do not change by themselves – not at the speed that is
normally required in this world of ever-increasing demands. The
momentum is generated first by leadership and then by followership.
Leaders at all levels within the organization have to have clarity of
purpose, the relevant leadership skills and knowledge to deploy and
to see themselves as leading from the middle, with the organization
and its stakeholders all around them. Top team alignment is also
crucial in times of change.
Case study description
A large local authority was not functioning as efficiently or as effectively
as it wanted. It was not being fully responsive to the needs of its citizens
or its various communities of interest. We conducted an organizational
analysis of the city council to find out what was helping the council
achieve its stated outcomes and what was getting in the way of this. The
analysis consisted of interviews with directors and strategic managers,
and focus groups with middle managers and front-line staff. Leading
politicians of all political persuasions were interviewed. A number of key
stakeholders such as citizens’ panels, partnerships and the trade unions
were also involved. Our report highlighted six interrelated areas in which
the council needed to significantly improve its overall effectiveness and
thereby reduce internal and external pressure.
The commitment, talent and effort of all those we met were impressive.
Many people from front-line workers to the most senior politicians and
officers were enthusiastic about the city and what the council might
contribute to its life and development. There were clearly many very
good services being offered to the city. However, at the same time there
was a strong feeling at all levels of untapped potential. The council’s ener-
gies were being dissipated through not having a true focus.
The emerging themes are outlined below and illustrated in Figure 7.1
Continually increasing customer and citizen focus
The passion to deliver the best possible service to both external and
internal customers, colleagues and partners was variable, with many

parts of the organization moving forward, but at an uneven pace. The
various self-inspection and external inspection processes were prompting
the council to streamline systems and procedures for service delivery.
However there were many instances cited where ‘customer care’ just was
not part of the mindset and where systems, policies and procedures
conspired to hinder the achievement in this area.
The interface between front-line services and the centre required
particular attention, specifically on how best to commission the providers.
Service level agreements, for example, were not fully used, and other
mechanisms needed to be installed to ensure there was both a psycholog-
ical and a written commitment to achieve excellent service delivery across
directorates and to the end user.
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A visible and congruent
leadership and
management style
Continually increasing
customer and citizen
focus
Extending the council’s
capacity for community
and partnership
working
Clarity and impact of
core values and
direction setting on
service delivery
More effective ways of
working
Moving to a more
consistent performance
and enabling culture
Figure 7.1 Six key points from case study one

Clarity and impact of core values and direction setting on service delivery
Everyone had accepted the council’s core values, but that was perhaps
because they were commonsensical and there was nothing in them that
anyone could contest. However there was scope for them to be revisited,
made more specifically demanding and directed towards action in order
to realize their potential. There were too many values, and these were
neither meaningfully translated into ways of working nor explicitly linked
to preferred outcomes or any performance management system. They had
been launched with a fanfare some time before, and no investment had
been put into their continued dissemination and implementation.
Everyone in the council had a mix of agendas to work to: various
corporate policy priorities, service delivery priorities, inter-agency
working and development initiatives. Greater clarity was needed
throughout the council about what outcomes were being sought and how
they could come together at every level. All managers and service heads
felt the tension of multiple demands and needed an effective process for
balancing these demands and setting personal and team targets.
The corporate policy priorities had a tremendously varied degree of
ownership, due partly to the lack of clarity around what they actually
meant, and also to a suspicion whether the political leadership and corpo-
rate managerial leadership were really committed to driving them
through. They did not translate easily into a vision for a better city that
employees could rally behind, and therefore the result was confusion and
a growing cynicism, rather than commitment.
There was little evidence that people were rewarded or recognized for
moving the corporate agenda on, and the lack of ongoing budget provi-
sion for these corporate initiatives also indicated a hesitancy when it came
to putting money where the mouth was.
A visible and congruent leadership and management style
At all levels, but notably at middle and front line, there were requests for
clearer, bolder and consistent leadership. This was seen as particularly
being the challenge for political leaders and senior officers in managing
the council’s myriad conflicting demands.
Clarity of vision and articulation of the council’s true direction and the
way it was to be achieved were needed to minimize confusion and focus
people’s minds and resources.
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Clearer, bolder and consistent leadership needed to include:
• a consistent and congruent set of priorities;
• processes for managing conflicts of priority and pressure which
inevitably occur within complex organizations;
• a demonstrable commitment and accountability for driving the
priorities through;
• a set of values embodied throughout the leadership, and used as a
reference point for decision making;
• minimization, at the very least, of cross-party destructive tensions.
Corporate leadership was most needed for tackling conflicts between
front-line services and the centre. It was also needed for harmonizing
corporate policy and the service/functional agenda, and for improving
the way change was managed across the organization.
Good management of change was lacking. This was seen as particularly
necessary with regards to the major modernizing agenda facing the
council. Management needed to start to communicate these changes so
that staff felt engaged in the co-creation of their futures, and so that the
feeling of initiative overload, where change is endured rather than
embraced, was reduced.
It was also noticeable that the roles of different management teams and
groups were not always clear. The senior management team and the
service heads needed to begin to take a more strategic role, at least part of
the time.
Moving to a more consistent performance and enabling culture
There was wide recognition that the council was improving its ability
to manage performance, but many wished to see greater consistency
and general improvement. This meant a need to establish realistic
targets for everyone across all their work, and to review progress regu-
larly against these, ensuring that any changes to plan were discussed
and incorporated.
The organization was already moving towards a performance manage-
ment and competency based framework. Some areas were beginning to

experiment with a development process that linked to service plans, team
plans and individual plans. This was successfully helping people to
clarify key outcomes and contributions from individuals and teams, and
this approach promoted greater ownership of the service and the
council’s agenda.
For the organization to embrace performance management more fully,
it needed to begin to address a number of cultural issues that were
hindering progress:
• the lack of direction and multiple priorities;
• the overwhelming feeling of organizational complexity;
• the uncertainty of what the city council actually stood for;
• the lack of understanding (in both senses of the word) between the
constituent parts of the organization;
• the ‘political’ nature of many of the transactions and relationships;
• the tendency towards a blame culture where valuing, appreciating
and recognizing the contribution of others was kept to a minimum;
• the ‘closedness’ of the culture (inability to look outside for new ideas);
• the lack of focus on developing people.
More effective ways of working
There were many ways to improve council working, from making meet-
ings more productive and less time-consuming, through to mastering
the complexities of matrix management and having effective informa-
tion management systems. With the complexity of the council’s task,
with demands coming from all directions at all levels, there needed to
be a clear (or as clear as possible) way of working a matrix structure to
cope with the specialist, cross-cutting and geographical dimensions of
service delivery.
There was a real need to accelerate the business planning process, to
ensure a performance management system was delivered in a consistent
way across the organization and to reduce conflict at the myriad of
boundaries within the organization.
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Extending the council’s capacity for community and partnership working
Increasingly the role for all staff required greater community engagement
and partnership working. Although this was demanding both on work-
load and skills it also offered greater learning, and interestingly for some
was preferable to internal working.
Most managers when prompted could cite examples of good partnership
working that had been developed over the previous few years. This was
one of a number of areas that the organization could be justifiably proud of.
The challenge was for people to have the confidence to communicate this
to all the stakeholders and be able to applaud and celebrate success.
The competencies in this new area of effective partnership were real
nuggets of success. These competencies needed to be transferred not only
to other areas of partnership working but also to where different parts of
the council could work more effectively with each other.
CASE STUDY TWO: REBRANDING THE ORGANIZATION
This case study describes one organization’s journey as it worked towards
reinvigorating its brand. The process chosen and the choices made along
the way make interesting reading.
Summary of key points arising from case study
• It is important to create a sense of urgency and momentum when a
major cultural change is required. In this case study, the senior
management team made a strong start, and put in the effort to keep
things going. This required many people to be
involved and energized, and for the number of
people involved to keep growing.
• Commitment to culture change cannot be devel-
oped by e-mail, or by memo. It has to be done
face to face and in real time. Cultural change is
achieved through action rather than words, so
people need to see their managers doing it as
well as talking about it. In this case study there
was a lot of face-to-face straight talking.
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• Breaking the mould is hard work! It involves planning and thinking
and role modelling, plus developing and implementing supporting
processes and policies.
• New teams provide new opportunities. Bridges (see Chapter 4)
describes the neutral zone as a time of tremendous creative opportuni-
ties. Similarly we have noticed that new senior management teams such
as the one featured in this case study are more likely to be able to change
an organizational culture because they themselves are changing.
• Supporting individuals is not soft! The hard work involved in facing
the real issues one to one with people pays off. It builds trust and
ensures understanding. But it takes courage, especially when change
involves the communication of unwelcome and painful news. Even
when change appears to offer hope for a brighter and better future,
some may not see it that way.
Case study description
The case study concerns a financial services organization that undertook
a strategic review and decided that it needed to reinvigorate the brand.
With the previous case study we focused on gaining internal alignment to
the organizational service. This case study takes a different perspective.
The key focus of this rebranding exercise was the external marketing of
the products and services on offer, and the way that customer-facing staff
represented the brand. This is best illustrated by Wasmer and Bruner ’s
research (1991) which maps the relationship flows between the customer,
the organization and the customer service provider (see Figure 7.2). They
saw the major constituents of their brand as:
• marketing communications;
• products on offer;
• speed of service;
• quality of service.
As a result of the strategic review the organization decided that the key to
its competitive advantage was the way in which its customer-facing
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employees transacted with customers and potential customers. They
were referring to not just the usual types of customer service behaviour
such as greeting, courtesy and complaint handling but also the ways that
the brand itself was being portrayed. The customer does not just receive
communication from the organization in terms of its marketing and its
goods. It also receives information via the customer service providers.
To focus more clearly on its target audience, the organization
segmented its potential customer market into four quadrants based on
their interest in financial services and their level of self-knowledge of
financial needs and potential solutions. One quadrant of the market was
generally knowledgeable and sophisticated. Another quadrant had a high
interest in the financial area of their lives but relatively little knowledge.
The third quadrant had a reasonable knowledge base but this was not
accompanied by any great level of interest. The final quadrant had little
interest and little knowledge (see Figure 7.3).
This segmentation generated a number of questions:
• What type of advice was best suited to each quadrant?
• Did the organization want to deliver that sort of advice?
���������� �
���
�� �������
�� �����

���
��
Figure 7.2 Map of relationship flows between the customer, the
organization and the customer service provider
Source: Wasmer and Bruner (1991)

• What was the organizational capability to deliver that advice (profitably)?
• Could the organization be developed to bridge any gaps?
The areas that showed most promise were those potential customers who
either were interested in investing in their financial future but needed
help in negotiating their way through the financial maze, or did not have
the interest but wanted someone to do it for them, and do it well. These
were the ‘Show it to me!’ and ‘Do it for me!’ customers.
Although those in the High–High quadrant were generally high net
worth individuals, the people who fell into that category wanted a high
level of service but were also more liable to shift their savings and invest-
ments from one financial institution to another fairly frequently. The
Low–Low quadrant likewise required a high level of support but did not
necessarily have the available funds to warrant that level of investment
from the organization.
Once the primary focus for business development opportunities had
been established, the next stage was to decide what sorts of things needed
to happen for customer needs to be satisfied. This included outlining the
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271
High
Interest in
the detail
of their
finances
Low
Show it to me! Prove it to me!
Not interested! Do it for me!
Low Knowledge of financial products High
Figure 7.3 Segmentation of financial services customers

behaviours and attitudes that customer-facing staff (and those back-office
staff supporting them) needed to exhibit. Key areas included the ability to
generate interest, to establish credibility, to have clarity of communication
and to be proactive to customer needs.
The reorientation of the company to this particular strategy included
the generation of a new set of company values. These values were not just
a list of slogans but were translated into behavioural statements. These
statements defined the preferred way of operating in the business and
indeed also became part of the recruitment process.
The values were not only ‘nice-to-have’ or ‘motherhood and apple pie’,
but were designed to align people within the organization to the company
strategy and the preferred behaviours. So for example a value of ‘treat
people well’ was translated into making people feel they are your number
one priority, and treating all customers and each other with respect. The
value of ‘say it as it is’ was translated into talking to customers and
colleagues in a straightforward manner. These behaviours could be veri-
fied by observation or customer feedback. They could also be learnt.
Of course to get to the stage where front-line staff behaved in accor-
dance with company strategy required other enabling actions, which
were drawn from best practice and appropriate models of individual,
team and organizational change.
Getting started
The whole change started with a comprehensive strategy review and the
generation of a programme plan with specific projects covering areas
such as brand development, systems development, business lead genera-
tion and defining the customer experience. This was kick-started by the
senior management team with some input from relevant stakeholders.
However, initially it was a ‘top-down’ process which drew a lot from the
machine metaphor. Using Kotter ’s terminology a sense of urgency was
created (‘with the market as it is we cannot carry on as we have been
doing’) and an overarching vision developed.
The next layer of managers below the senior management team were
enlisted to form part of the guiding collation. A change management
team was formed, tasked with managing the transition from both a task
and people perspective, with sponsorship from and direct reporting line
into the senior management team. Quite soon however the changes
picked up their own momentum.
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Gaining commitment
It became apparent that not everyone was dissatisfied with the status
quo. People were a little unclear about the desirability of some of the
changes, and some of the more impractical aspects of the proposed
changes were accentuated. The senior management team by now had
extended the members of the guiding coalition to involve a critical mass
of 85 ‘strategy leaders’. It was their task to reinforce the need to change,
and to develop a clarity of vision that could be translated into tangible
objectives and behaviours throughout the organization.
This translation process occurred over several months, and became an
iterative process with all staff. Conversations were had, which set out
what the managers wanted to see but involved staff at the front line
talking through the practicalities. This process raised some points about
the original thinking which needed amending, and enabled staff to get a
much better idea of what was required of them.
Breaking the mould
The transition from the old to the new was effectively dealt with by the
good use of programme management, led by the senior management
team, and supported by a specially constituted change management
team. Feedback loops to and from key stakeholders including staff were
an integrated part of the process.
The generation of a set of values which were translated into
behavioural imperatives, coupled with values workshops with all staff,
set a benchmark for the organizational culture. The values helped to
minimize organizational politics by encouraging ‘straight talk’. This was
impressively role modelled by the senior management team and the
change management team, who were open and honest with both good
news and bad.
A key aspect of the new way of doing things was the openness to ideas
wherever they came from and the development of an enabling and empow-
ering culture. Creativity, risk taking and learning were encouraged through
the co-option of diagonal slices of staff onto change initiative working
groups and by scheduled reviews throughout the transition period.
Self-esteem and performance can drop during periods of change. In a
sense this is unavoidable – a natural and normal reaction to change
affecting individuals (see Chapter 1). Key interventions here included

demonstrable listening to staff concerns and many examples of staff
issues being dealt with in a way that satisfied them but did not compro-
mise the general business direction. In addition objective third-party
consultants were used as additional support for individuals and groups
of individuals who were most affected by the changes. Line managers
were prepared with full communication of the changes to pass on, and
open access was given to more senior managers to tap into their knowl-
edge and experience. Greater emphasis was put on coaching through the
line, which quickly enabled managers to tackle performance issues
arising from the change.
Building new teams
The realignment of the organization as a result of the new strategy had
a number of knock-on effects on different teams. The senior team was
a newly configured team at the beginning of the strategy review
process, and acquired a new sales director part-way through the
process. An important component of the time its members spent
together was attending to their team development process. The devel-
opment process was focused on the tasks in hand – strategy review and
strategy implementation – but on a regular basis members took the
time out to look at where they were as a team, and how they were
performing and interrelating.
The generation of the values was both a real and a symbolic act for the
senior management team. Having generated the values, they translated
them into actions for themselves. They offered this to the rest of the orga-
nization as a guideline, but wanted different parts of the organization to
discover what the values meant for them personally as a part of a team.
This, together with the senior management team role modelling the
values, was seen as a crucial part of the process.
The realignment within the organization meant that other teams and
groups throughout the organization were affected to a greater or lesser
degree. For example, the increased focus on savings, investments and
mortgages led to a division of labour and separate reporting lines for staff
within the branch network. In addition the centralized contact centre was
required to develop greater links and better lines of communication with
the national advisor sales force. Both these examples necessitated a
breaking down of old groupings and the development of a new set of
teams and consequent relationships.
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Supporting individuals
People processes formed a large part of the change plan. This included a
communication strategy that was in line with the new values of openness,
honesty and straight talk. Processes were put in place to ensure that indi-
viduals displaced had clarity around their situation and guidelines as to
how things would progress. Selection to new posts was made using an
equitable process, and the new reward scheme was aligned to the new
strategy and values.
Outplacement was provided for those leaving the organization and
counselling provided for those who needed to talk their situation through
in a confidential setting. Coaching and mentoring were provided for
more senior managers who had to take up new roles and needed to make
sense of the changes and make their own adjustments within themselves.
CASE STUDY THREE: CREATING AN EMPLOYER BRAND
Summary of key points arising from case study
• Start from the business strategy. An employer brand only has meaning
when it is presented in the context of an overarching company strategy.
• Lead change from within the business to enhance success. In the case
study, the trap of HR owning the culture change was studiously
avoided. This enhanced the acceptability of the new brand.
• Do not over-plan the change process – stay flexible. Things change
as organizations move through a change process. This case study
illustrates how to plan phase by phase, ensuring that feedback is
incorporated into future plans.
• Be creative – do things in new ways. Culture change can only be
achieved by doing things differently. In this case, the organization
incorporated some radically new ways of doing things by using the
principle of marketing to engage employees in the desired changes.
• Build on the current cultural strengths rather than attack current
habits or try to break things down. The employer brand was derived
from conversations with a wide cross-section of employees, so there
was a ‘rightness’ about the brand values, which impressed people.

Case study description
This third case study illustrates the challenges and opportunities offered
by creating an employer brand. The organization in this case study is a
highly successful and dynamic global spirits and wine business which has
grown steadily through merger and acquisition over the last 10 years. The
steady progress of industry consolidation worldwide led this business to
consider its future as either an acquiring or an acquired company. This
contemplation led to a desire to strengthen various aspects of the business,
resulting in three interrelated aims:
• to be fit and ready to take opportunities as they arise, whether they
come from industry consolidation, acquisition or new ventures;
• to achieve quality growth by:
– generating volume and share growth on specific existing key brands;
– encouraging innovation and launching new products;
– integrating newly acquired brands and businesses;
• to enable the above to happen smoothly by implementing simple and
flexible systems and processes such as those delivered by SAP.
In order to encourage full engagement and involvement in the new
strategy, the organization decided to launch an employer brand which
challenged all business units to get full commitment of all employees, so
that each person could become part of a unified winning team, connecting
with consumers and taking the business to new levels of growth. The top
team wanted everyone to be engaged in the action, committed to the goal
and confident of their part in achieving it. Everyone was expected to take
an active role individually, and work with others as part of the team.
One of the significant pieces of data that informed this employer brand
strategy was the following quote from the Collins and Porras survey, Built
to Last (1994): ‘Companies with strong positive core vision and core values
have outperformed the general stock market by a factor of 12 since 1925.’
The employer brand
The employer brand arose from the existing culture. It was worked on by
both internal and external people through eliciting current views of the
company ethos, and gathering aspirations of current employees.
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The concept of the brand wheel was used to define the brand. This is
encapsulated in Figure 7.4. The brand wheel idea, developed by Bates
North America, is used to define the functional and emotional compo-
nents of a brand. Bates North America has developed an impressive repu-
tation for reinvigorating brands. The brand wheel is based on various
concepts that go into creating a brand such as essence, values and person-
ality. The brand essence is heart or spirit of the brand. The brand values
are about how the brand makes a person feel and what it says about them
if they become associated with the brand. The brand personality is a way
of talking about the brand as if it were a person, to get to the emotional
content of the brand itself.
Out of the brand wheel came a concise definition of the six key brand
values together with their associated behaviours. See box.
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Working
environment
Performance with
passion
Proactive
Appraisal,
Development &
Recruitment systems
High performance
teams
Delivery of AD
vision & strategies
Single global
people strategy
Accountable
Open &
honest
Sharing &
supportive
Committed to
deliver
Dynamic
Passionate
Courageous
Celebration
UnityLearning
Integrity
Diversity
Quality of
people
Reward &
recognition
Quality of social
interaction
Job design & career
development
Growing
Proud
Motivated
Valued
Important
Successful
Winning
Determination
to succeed
How it
makes us
feel
Facts/Icons (End) product
What it
says
about us
Personality
Core values
Physical benefits
Essence
Figure 7.4 Brand wheel for employer brand

THE SIX EMPLOYER BRAND VALUES
Value: integrity
Behaviours:
• Expressing views and opinions in an open, honest and constructive way.
• Consistently delivering on their promises and commitments.
• Taking accountability for decisions and actions.
Value: unity
Behaviours:
• Contributing enthusiastically to team goals, sharing and aligning own
objectives with team(s).
• Supporting and encouraging players on their own team and other teams.
• Building personal success on team success and contributing to other
teams’ success.
Value: diversity
Behaviours:
• Treating diverse views, cultures and communities with respect.
• Learning from the variety of different cultures, countries, functions and
teams within the organization.
• Acknowledging different approaches and seeking win–win solutions.
Value: performance with passion
Behaviours:
• Setting and exceeding stretching targets, individually and in teams.
• Demonstrating high levels of pace, energy and commitment in
achieving goals.
• Finding new opportunities to improve their game and being courageous
by trying them.
Value: celebration
Behaviours:
• Sharing success, recognizing and rewarding achievement of other
players.
• Encouraging the celebration of success and building a ‘success leads
to more success’ culture.
• Having a can-do mentality and encouraging others to do the same.
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Value: learning
Behaviours:
• Being proactive in professional and personal development.
• Sharing learning and supporting the development of other players.
• Going outside the ‘comfort-zone’, challenging the status quo, and
learning from mistakes.
The process
The organization devised a three-stage process to move from this defini-
tion of six core values to a position of full involvement with the new
strategy. The three stages were awareness, adoption and advocacy (see
Figure 7.5), with only the first stage planned in detail. The second and
third stages were give a broad brush plan, but awaited the results of the
first stage to enable sensible planning.
The awareness stage involved three main activities:
• A video was circulated to all managers, which identified the values in
an exciting way.
• Senior managers were asked to introduce the values at any business
meetings they were already running within a six-month period (special
meetings were not held, and HR people did not run the process alone).
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Awareness
Understanding the values,
understanding the reasons
for change and hearing the
commitment of the top
team.
Adoption
Using behaviours that
demonstrate the values,
rewarding those who
demonstrate values,
hearing of success stories.
Advocacy
Being a champion of the
values and behaviours.
Recommending them to
others. Part of the way
things are done round here.
Figure 7.5 Financial service quadrants

• The six values were integrated into the performance review process.
They became key performance measures for each individual.
The Adoption stage is going on at the time of writing, and was preceded
by a questionnaire which tested the success of the awareness stage.
Adoption in this context is about implementation, so this stage of the
process is very practical and involves lots of ‘hands-on’ activities. A brand
director was appointed at the end of the awareness stage to look after and
promote the employer brand, and interestingly, this person has a
marketing rather than an HR background. Planned activities so far
include a newsletter circulating stories of success and the creation of a
website on the company intranet that allows exchange of views and offers
team exercises and thought-provoking resources to help people to get to
grips with the values. Employer brand items and gifts such as mugs,
sweatshirts and hats will also be available for those who want to promote
the brand locally, or wish to have themed celebrations.
Advocacy is already appearing in pockets around the organization.
Various managers have been selected as brand champions, but this process
is seen as emergent rather than one that needs to be closely managed.
The planning team also used the Beckhard change formula to guide
their actions (see Chapter 3). This meant having a clear vision, explaining
the need for change and devising some first steps.
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8
IT-based process change
IT has become a significant part of every
person’s working life. According to US
economic analysis figures, companies are
now spending an average of 30 per cent of
their capital expenditures on information
technology compared with 5 per cent in
the 1960s. It is viewed as a critical resource.
However, despite the sophistication of
the IT equipment available and the range
of IT tools and techniques that have been devised and in many cases
heavily promoted, organizations are still failing to gain the business value
they hope for when they embark on IT-based change. It seems that while
the promise of IT is high, the reality of what we actually experience is
disappointing. It is as if the capacity of IT to deliver great things has over-
taken our ability to use it effectively within our organizations.
Data gathered by Wharton Management School in 1996 reinforces this
gap between expectation and reality. The research indicates that although
72 per cent of company executives asked say that it is critical for their orga-
nization to use high-tech tools such as IT to be competitive, only 17 per
cent of respondents say that the benefits of these tools are being realized.
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So what goes wrong in the process of realizing the benefits? Why do
organizations have trouble with IT-based change? This chapter looks at
the particular difficulties of achieving successful IT-based change and
offers advice on how to overcome particular obstacles associated with this
type of endeavour. The topics addressed are:
• strategy and IT;
• the role of IT management;
• the need for IT change managers;
• achieving process change;
• changing the information culture;
• new rules for a new age.
The potential gains of successfully implementing IT-based change are
many and varied. Organizations are attracted by the idea that they will
gain the capability to do a range of highly desirable things. Some of the
potential gains concern innovation and development:
• to achieve flexible responsive production of customized goods;
• to segment the marketplace in new ways through analysing informa-
tion, and then create new products for those segments;
• to serve customers in new ways by creating access via the internet;
• to create new forms of partnership and new types of organization.
But many of the potential gains concern achieving efficiencies to:
• reduce the need for agents and intermediaries by providing employee
or customer self-service facilities over the internet or intranet;
• achieve sophisticated functionality at reasonable cost (for instance by
introducing standard packages such as ERP);
• allow globalization of operations;
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• enable choices to be made about how the company is structured while
retaining the necessary level of central control;
• produce better information, with a greater level of detail than was
possible before, and make it available faster to allow better decisions
to be made;
• enable 24-hour working to maximize the ability to serve the globe and
make best use of resources;
• encourage greater staff involvement by making information available
to more people in the company;
• increase the opportunity for flexible working on the road or at home;
• reduce staff costs;
• increase the value of skills and knowledge by sharing information well.
Consider the growth in the use of SAP systems as an example of how
companies are responding to the need to realize some of the potential
gains listed above. SAP is a company that provides enterprise-wide appli-
cations that can satisfy most of a business’s activities. SAP global sales
have seen phenomenal growth from US$500 million in 1991 to US$2,400
million in 1996. Companies are obviously impressed by the powerful
system, but there are many stories of the painful struggles that people
have to go through before they achieve optimum usage of the software.
It is certainly not an easy ride to move from strategy to implementation.
IMPLEMENTING IT WORLDWIDE –
WHAT’S IN IT FOR THEM?
It all started in the Head Office in the United States. We developed a strict plan
of action. We had a very clear timetable for the coming 18 months. A series of
conference calls with the financial directors in each region made it clear what
the time frame was for rolling out the system, and what needed to be done in
preparation for this. However, when the moment came, they just were not
ready, despite continuous reassurances that it would be done in time.
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At the last minute we had to call in some consultants to work through the
readiness checklist with the various regional teams. This cost us quite a bit of
extra money that we had not budgeted for.
I don’t think I have ever met such silent resistance. Until then, the regional
offices had been allowed to report financial information in their own way. To
them, the requirement to use the new system seemed very intrusive, and of no
practical value. I guess we had only really seen and explained the advantages
from a central point of view. If I did the same process again, I would take more
time to go through the ‘What’s in it for them?’ angle.
Financial projects manager, IT company
STRATEGY AND IT
It used to be that managers could delegate IT decisions to the organization’s
resident computer experts and they would simply go away and decide how
to design and build a solution. But now, the decisions being made can affect
the whole business in terms of service and product possibilities, smooth
running of day-to-day operations and opportunities for sharing informa-
tion. Is it sensible to leave these decisions up to technical experts who do not
always have a full understanding of the organization’s vision and purpose?
Companies can and frequently do end up with a range of incompatible
systems that may never achieve an optimum configuration. This can take
years to sort out. Or even worse, a significant component system may be
unable to fulfil management’s long-term plans for organizational change,
which may necessitate being able to segment data in different ways.
But there is a problem with senior management getting closer to the IT
decision-making process. Davenport (1994) says, ‘General managers…
usually don’t know much about computers. They may like the idea of
using information technology strategically… But they seldom know how
to translate their wishes into specific IT investments.’ How can this situa-
tion be managed?
IT strategic grid
First, it is important to decide what sort of contribution IT makes to the
organization’s strategy. This enables the senior management team to
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gauge how much and what sort of attention the development and
running of IT systems should be given by themselves and by others.
To make this decision it is necessary to look at two factors: strategic
impact of application development and strategic impact of existing
systems. For some organizations, the development of new innovative IT
systems has a significant strategic impact; for others, they are more
focused on installing off-the-shelf packages to enhance some aspect of
internal performance. Similarly, some organizations are 100 per cent
dependent on IT to maintain operational performance, such as manufac-
turing organizations. For others, it might take quite a period of time before
a disruption in IT services would create a significant performance dip.
The grid in Figure 8.1 is useful for assessing the organization’s current
IT strategic position and thus deciding how much senior management
attention needs to be spent on IT issues, and how IT should be managed.
It is worth noting that the organization may change its position on the
grid over a number of years.
‘Support’ organizations may spend a lot of money on IT, but they are not
totally dependent on IT systems for operational success day to day, minute
to minute. Neither do they gain strategic advantage from innovative appli-
cation developments. A doctor ’s surgery would qualify here. In this case,
senior management can be quite distant from the IT planning process.
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285
Figure 8.1 IT strategic grid
Source: adapted from Cash et al (1992)
Strategic High
impact of Factory Strategicexisting
systems
(operation
dependence) Low
Support Turnaround
Low High
Strategic impact of innovative applications development portfolio
(strategic value)

‘Factory ’ organizations are completely dependent on the smooth
running of their IT systems. For instance, a manufacturing unit might
grind to a halt if the IT systems were to fail. However, with this type of
organization, innovative applications developments, although important,
are not crucial to the organization’s ability to be competitive, except when
its performance starts to lag behind competitors, and a move to the
‘strategic’ quadrant occurs.
‘Turnaround’ organizations are those in which innovative applica-
tions developments are crucial to the firm’s strategic success, but the
day-to-day running of IT systems is not so critical. This might for
example be an organization developing e-learning packages. The other
classic examples are DHL, UPS and Fedex, who all offered customers the
ability to go online and check the status of packages that were being
dispatched. This gave them tremendous strategic advantage. In this case
IT planning needs substantial effort, and needs to be linked closely to
organizational strategy.
‘Strategic’ organizations such as banks and insurance companies are
those in which innovative applications development brings significant
competitive advantage and day-to-day processes are highly dependent
on the smooth running of IT systems. In these types of organization, there
is a very tight link between business strategy and IT strategy, and the
head of IT normally sits on the board of directors.
Developing guiding principles
How do senior managers ensure that IT invest-
ment decisions are in line with the organization’s
long-term strategy? The answer may be to
develop a set of guiding principles which govern
IT investment decisions.
The ‘principles’ approach to IT is advocated by
Davenport. He recommends that a task force is
set up comprising from 5 to 10 senior managers,
including a senior information systems person,
together with a small group of IS managers. This
group should begin to devise a set of guiding principles that link strategy
to IT investment decisions. The senior managers act as sponsors later in
the process, endorsing the principles devised by the group.
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The IS managers create the initial set of principles which convey the
basic attitudes of the company towards technology, the overall direction
the business is taking and the use to be made of existing technologies.
These principles should be good for two or three years, or until there is a
major shift in strategy. They should cover infrastructure, applications, data
and organization. Examples of such principles are given by Davenport:
On infrastructure: We are committed to a single vendor environment.
On applications: IS will provide applications that support cross-functional
integration of business processes.
On data: Data created or obtained within the company belongs to the corpo-
ration – not to any particular function, unit, or individual. It is available to any
user in the company who can demonstrate a need for it.
On organization: The user-sponsor of a systems project will be responsible for
the business success of the system.
Once this amount of time and effort is spent aligning the thinking
between senior business managers and IT managers, the strategic course
for IT progress is set, and decision making becomes much easier.
Enterprise architectures
The term ‘enterprise architecture’ is becoming widely used when
talking about IT strategy. It means building an organizing logic for busi-
ness processes and IT infrastructure, so that the alignment between the
business and IT is more visible, more dynamic and more focused on
creating value.
THE ROLE OF IT MANAGEMENT
IT management skills are critical to an organization’s ability to incorporate
the technologies that are ‘out there’ and use them to best advantage.
However, IT staff are often left out of the core decision-making processes
and treated as implementers rather than strategists. The solution, we
believe, is to ensure that IT management skills are present not only with
IT departments, but all over the organization (see box).
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Sambamurthy and Zmud (in Sauer and Yetton, 1997) say:
In our experience the most valued IT management skills tend to require
lengthy development periods as they are heavily dependent on local – for
example organization-specific – knowledge. We have also found that not all
firms are equally endowed with the most valuable IT management skills.
Furthermore, in order to be effectively applied, a firm’s IT management skills
must be intricately woven into the complex milieu of an organization’s struc-
tures, roles, processes, culture, and the many relationships among a firm’s
business and IT managers.
In today’s organizations the responsibility for managing IT is widely
dispersed. It no longer sits solely with the IT director, but is shared among
group-level IT people, business-level IT people, business line management,
vendors, partners, consultants and contractors. This web of interconnected
individuals somehow needs to sustain the organization’s ability to inno-
vate, plan, design, develop, implement, integrate and maintain IT systems.
So what are the unique skills and knowledge areas required by an orga-
nization collectively to ensure that IT is used to improve business
processes, enable changes in organizational structure, add value to its
knowledge base and create or support the development of new products
and services? Sambamurthy and Zmud carried out a four-year research
programme in the early 1990s, out of which emerged seven categories of
IT management competencies:
• Business deployment. The key competences in this area are the
ability to examine, visualize and communicate the value offered by
emerging IT. This needs to be coupled with the use of multidisci-
plinary teams, with a good shared understanding of IT, to rapidly
implement innovative IT solutions.
• External networks. This area of competence refers to the need for the
organization to develop close partnerships with external parties to
increase their awareness of emerging IT.
• Line technology leadership. Users such as line managers and senior
managers need to participate actively in championing IT initiatives.
This area of competence concerns the ability to take technical leader-
ship, which line managers may delegate rather too quickly to IT
people through lack of understanding of the technology.
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• Process adaptiveness. This competence refers to the ability of all
employees to relate to IT and the way it can transform business
processes. It is also about the organization’s track record in restruc-
turing its processes, and the existence of an environment where
employees can discover and explore the functionality of IT systems.
This means anything from the existence of a help desk, to online
tutorials, to devoting time to training. For instance Deloitte and
Touche has an innovation centre where employees can experiment
with new technologies such as web services to decide whether or not
they could be useful.
• IT planning. This competence concerns the ability of managers
within the organization to link strategic plans with IT plans, and to
plan and execute individual projects.
• IT infrastructure. This competence is about the appropriateness and
flexibility of the underlying infrastructure which allows innovative IT
practices to emerge and to be capitalized upon.
• Data centre utility. This competence concerns the ability of those
within the organization to build, maintain and secure fundamental
information processing services.
We would add one competence to this list, as many organizations have
completely outsourced IT operations and development, just leaving
themselves with project managers and business analysts:
• Managing outsourced services. This concerns the ability to evaluate
potential service options, manage the transition to outsourced IT
services and manage service levels and service evaluation.
Sambamurthy and Zmud asked 230 senior IT executives to assess the
levels of these competencies in their own organizations and to rate their
organization’s success in deploying IT successfully. This research revealed
a strong link between the level of these competencies and the organiza-
tion’s level of success with deploying IT in support of its business strategy
and work processes. The organizations in the group of respondents char-
acterized by the highest level of IT management competency were also
those demonstrating the highest success rate in deploying IT.
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We offer the following three-stage process for moving towards better
IT management.
Step one
Bring together a task force including senior management, line manage-
ment and IT people. Start a discussion about how IT strategy will link to
organizational strategy over the next five years. Select the IT management
competencies that you think will be most important.
Step two
Conduct an audit of the key IT management competencies, involving as
many people as possible. Use internal (good development for them) or
external (better access to benchmarking data) consultants for this process.
Feed back the results and identify hot spots where competence is low, but
importance is high.
Step three
Plan how to raise the level of the most significant competences, allocating
resources, responsibility and defining a specific timescale.
IT MANAGEMENT COMPETENCIES
• Business deployment:
– examination of the potential business value of new, emerging IT;
– utilization of multidisciplinary teams throughout the organization;
– effective working relationships among line managers and IT staff;
– technology transfer, where appropriate, of successful IT applications,
platforms and services;
– adequacy of IT-related knowledge of line managers throughout the
organization;
– visualizing the value of IT investments throughout the organization;
– appropriateness of IT policies;
– appropriateness of IT sourcing decisions;
– effectiveness of IT measurement systems.
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• External networks:
– existence of electronic links with the organization’s customers;
– existence of electronic links with the organization’s suppliers;
– collaborative alliances with external partners (vendors, systems inte-
grators, competitors) to develop IT-based products and processes.
• Line technology leadership:
– line managers’ ownership of IT projects within their domains of
business responsibility;
– propensity of employees throughout the organization to serve as
‘project champions’.
• Process adaptiveness:
– propensity of employees throughout the organization to learn about
and subsequently explore the functionality of installed IT tools and
applications;
– restructuring of business processes, where appropriate, throughout
the organization;
– visualizing organizational activities throughout the organization.
• IT planning
– integration of business strategic planning and IT strategic planning;
– clarity of vision regarding how IT contributes to business value;
– effectiveness of IT planning throughout the organization;
– effectiveness of project management practices.
• IT infrastructure
– restructuring of IT work processes, where appropriate;
– appropriateness of data architecture;
– appropriateness of network architecture;
– knowledge of and adequacy of the organization’s IT skill base;
– consistency of object (data, process, rules) definitions;
– effectiveness of software development practices.
• Data centre utility:
– appropriateness of processor architecture;
– adequacy of quality assurance and security controls.
Source: Sambamurthy and Zmud in Sauer and Yetton (1997)
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc
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THE NEED FOR IT CHANGE MANAGERS
The days of the highly specialized in-house
technical IT expert or ‘geek’ are probably
numbered. Many IT solutions are off-the-
shelf, and the teams of analysts and devel-
opers which used to occupy in-house IT
departments are shrinking, or being
outsourced, or simply not required. IT people
with change management skills are needed
now more than ever. Those IT people who
can understand technology, be aware of what
is ‘out there’ and what it can do for organiza-
tions, plus grasp how to create the changes desired by the organization are
highly valuable.
IT courses and literature both tend to focus on the acquisition of IT
skills and knowledge, or on the importance of good project manage-
ment. The goal of IT work has traditionally been to deliver a piece of
finished software to timescale and to budget, according to the specifica-
tion. Much emphasis is made on getting the specification right, getting
the right skills in place and controlling changes along the way. See
Figure 8.2, which illustrates a typical IT roll-out process. There is
precious little reference to stakeholder management or business user
involvement, although it may be implicit.
The applications
Goal: Establish
project infrastructure.
Define, prioritize and
gain consensus on
requirements,
components, and
vision
Phase one
Assessment of
here and now,
vision building
and planning
Goal: Specify
requirements for
developing services
that enable the
vision
Phase two
Analysis and
design of future
processes and
technologies
Goal: Establish a
system tested
solution in a
development
environment. Make
system ready for
roll-out
Phase three
Build solutions
Goal: Test and
implement
technologies and
processes in real
user environment
Phase four
Test and roll out
solutions
Figure 8.2 Typical IT roll-out process
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The emergence of rapid development techniques allows for real-time
updating of software and flexible scoping of a project, but this approach
involves a new way of specifying and managing development of IT
systems which can be hard to establish and keep going.
IT people tend not to learn about change management. They learn to
see their job as ending when the system is delivered. This is beginning to
change in more forward-looking organizations, but is still an issue in
many IT departments, and in many software development companies
and consultancies too. IT people need to improve their skills in influ-
encing and managing change, as well as their understanding of how
organizational change works, and the nature of motivation and resistance
in organizational systems.
The first aspect of the way the IT people work in organizations is the
role that they tend to assume when working with business clients. Block
(2000) offers a useful way of describing the three types of role that a
consultant can have when dealing with a client. This is helpful when
considering the ways in which IT people can choose to work with their
clients. The three types of role are:
• expert role;
• pair of hands role;
• collaborative role.
The expert role
The consultant is the expert. The client has fully delegated the authority
to plan and implement changes to the consultant. Decisions on how to
proceed are made by the consultant on the basis of his or her expert
judgement. The client elects to play an inactive role, and is responsive
only when required by the consultant to respond. The client’s role is to
judge and evaluate after the fact. The consultant’s goal is to solve the
immediate problem.
When IT people choose this role (as they very often do) it means that
they have the space to get on with the job in hand without interruption
or interference, but it means that they can hide behind their expertise
when things go wrong, much to the frustration of business managers.
The other problem with this approach is that the client’s commitment to
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the technical solution is often rather thin. This means that when the client
gets the end product, he or she is not always happy, having taken little
interest until the finished item hits his or her desk.
The pair of hands role
Here the client sees the consultant as an extra pair of hands. The client
retains full control. The consultant is expected to apply specialized
knowledge to implement action plans towards achievement of goals
defined by the client.
The consultant takes a passive role and does not question the client’s
plans. Decisions on how to proceed are made by the client. The consul-
tant may prepare recommendations for the client’s review and approval.
Collaboration is not really necessary and two-way communication is
limited. The client initiates and the consultant responds. The client’s role
is to judge and evaluate from a close distance.
When IT people take this type of role with their clients, problems occur
because the manager may not have selected the best solution, and the
consultant did not feel that he or she could question what he or she was
told to do.
The collaborative role
In this case problem solving is a joint undertaking. Consultants working in
this mode apply their special skills to help clients solve problems; they don’t
solve problems for the client. The consultant and client work to become
interdependent. They share responsibility 50/50 for action planning, imple-
mentation and results. Control issues become matters for discussion and
negotiation. Disagreement is expected and seen as a source of new ideas.
The consultant’s goal is to solve problems so that they stay solved. Next
time the client will have the skills to solve the problem.
In this mode, the relationship between consultant and client is creative,
productive and responsibility is shared. This is the most appropriate role
for IT people to take with clients in today ’s complex organizations.
However, it demands that IT people acquire skills beyond the technical.
Some clients will see this type of relationship as slow, and may interpret
collaboration as some form of obstruction. They will want to gain access
to the quick results that the ‘experts’ used to give them, which will lead
them to the problems highlighted above with the expert role.
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What skills and knowledge might be required to enhance an IT
person’s ability to work collaboratively with business managers? The
intended outcome is to increase the possibility of implemented IT systems
resulting in the intended behaviour change. We suggest that IT people
involved in large-scale change initiatives need to acquire the following
skills and knowledge if they are to become better agents of change:
• Knowledge:
– How does organizational change happen?
– What motivates people and how can that motivation be activated?
– Where does resistance to change come from, and how can it be
handled?
– What change processes and what leadership styles are there to
choose from, and what are the effects of each?
– Wide understanding of different business processes.
– Good understanding of organizational culture and its impact on
change.
• Skills:
– Coaching managers to solve change issues.
– Facilitating multidisciplinary team workshops.
– Influencing those outside your direct control.
– Client and stakeholder management (saying no as much as you
say yes)!!
– Collaborative process mapping.
– Ability to speak the client’s language (using their terminology).
If you are an IT person reading this, then your irritation level may now
have reached an all-time high! You may be thinking, ‘I am already doing
all this!’ We congratulate you, and offer our additional thoughts on the
role of HR people in IT-based change. HR people suffer this syndrome in
reverse. While they might focus on all the people-related aspects of
desired changes, they often fail to grasp the nature of the technology
involved. Again this is changing, but slowly.
Enterprise-wide applications such as PeopleSoft are now taking hold in
many organizations, replacing many of the tasks that HR people have
traditionally called their own (promotion, recruitment, arrangement of
training). HR people need to be ready to understand and explore the
possibilities offered by these systems so that they can think through how
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people will be affected, and orientate their internal structures and skills
accordingly. This might mean setting up some quite different structures.
Some central HR departments that we have worked with are now
providing help desks and supporting users of IT, while offering HR policy
guidance rather than taking on a full HR management role.
ACHIEVING PROCESS CHANGE
IT-based change is about process change. It involves people doing different
things in different ways with different inputs and different outputs. New
or improved IT systems are brought in to either increase efficiency or to
allow innovation to occur, not to simply automate what is already there, so
process change almost always occurs. But how is this best achieved?
In this section we compare two different approaches to process change.
These are BPR (business process re-engineering) and socio-technical
design. We look at the pros and cons of these two approaches, and inves-
tigate how these two approaches can be combined to offer a new way of
successfully improving processes using IT as a lever.
BPR
BPR is one of the best known approaches to achieving IT-based change in
organizations. It was first set out in a book by Hammer and Champy in
1993, entitled Reengineering the Corporation: A manifesto for business revolu-
tion, and was received with much enthusiasm from the business commu-
nity, appearing to offer the answer to how to achieve radical change and
maximize effectiveness. The tenets of this approach are:
• rigorous focus on business processes that deliver value to the customer;
• radical process redesign from scratch, leading to radical transformation;
• all unnecessary process detail is eliminated;
• old processes are obliterated;
• redesign produces processes that give significant strategic improve-
ments in competitive performance;
• enabled by IT.
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AN EXAMPLE OF BPR
A car leasing organization in the UK decided to completely redesign its
customer service processes, with the goal of gaining competitive advan-
tage over other car leasing companies by being much faster and much
more responsive. It also intended to offer some self-service operations to
customers via the internet. A task force was selected from the existing
customer service team, and these people worked alongside a team of
specialized BPR consultants to radically redesign the customer service
processes over a period of three to four months.
The new process designs looked excellent, but problems came in the
form of resistance when teams had to work on implementing processes
that were obviously going to lead to staff redundancies. The roll-out was
done over an intensive six-month period, which was very stressful for
managers and staff alike. Customers noticed a significant dip in service,
so much so that two key accounts were lost during the roll-out period.
Things are better now, with new teams in place and improved processes,
but if anyone was brave enough to do a cost–benefit analysis, the results
would probably not look good.
Unfortunately the number of BPR successes where expectations have been
fully realized is said to be quite small. Advocates of BPR take some pride in
this. They claim that the potential gains of this approach are so great, it is
bound to be risky. However, Sauer and Yetton (1997) say, ‘Not only is the risk
[of BPR] substantial, but the stakes are unusually high. The cost of failure for
a project that involves organizational transformation is likely to be much
greater than the simple loss of investment. The time lost in undertaking a
project that fails may give competitors a lead that cannot be recovered.’
This is a mechanistic approach that spends little effort on the social or
organizational side of the process. A typical BPR approach follows the
steps seen in Figure 8.3. There might be some team work, some multi-
skilling and some group problem solving; there is usually quite a strong
prescriptive element to the IT solution. Also, although the impact on
structures, skills, culture and standards is thought about, it is often not
acted upon until the later phases of the programme of change, as an add-
on. Many believe that this approach is not the most effective way of
engaging people in defining what process improvements are needed, and
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297

in making them happen. Resistance may be encountered, which will
waste effort, or cause the initiative to fail.
BPR therefore offers the very attractive prospect of radically trans-
forming key processes by starting from a totally blank sheet. The down-
side comes during implementation, when resistance from those who
have not been involved may be encountered. Radical process improve-
ments which lead to staff redundancies are difficult to manage, and team
performance will dip during the implementation period. Staff read the
signs of a new systems implementation where redundancies will result,
and are demotivated at an early stage in the lifecycle.
Socio-technical design
The principles of socio-technical design are concerned with getting a
balance between:
• the strategic vision of the organization;
• the technology and the tasks needed to provide the product or service;
• the needs of the staff.
This school of thought stems from a systems view of organizations, based
in the organism metaphor (see Senge in Chapter 3), and is a much more
incremental, evolutionary approach. The approach is less widely used
than BPR, and seems more cautious and humanistic than traditional BPR
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Develop business vision and process objectives
⇓
Identify process to be redesigned
⇓
Understand and measure existing process
⇓
Identify IT levers
⇓
Design and build prototype of new processes
Figure 8.3 A typical BPR approach
Source: adapted from Davenport and Short (1990)

processes, which have a rather macho feel to them, advocating throwing
everything out and starting again.
The underlying principles of socio-technical design are identified in
Mumford and Beekman (1994). These principles were originally devel-
oped by the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in London in the late
1960s, but still appear to hold good today:
• The principle of minimum critical specification: tell people what to
do but not how to do it.
• The principle of variance control: problems must be corrected as
close to the point of origin as possible, and preferably by the group
that caused them.
• The principle of multiskilling: give individuals a range of tasks
including some routine and some challenging.
• The principle of boundary management: identify boundaries
between groups or functions and ensure that these are well managed
and that the people on them have the necessary information to pass
the product smoothly to its next transformation stage.
• The principle of information flow: information systems should be
designed so that information goes directly to the place where action
is to be taken, or to the source that originated it.
• The principle of design and human values: an important objective of
organizational design should be to provide a high quality of working
life for employees, for instance to fulfil the need to feel the job leads
to a desirable future.
• The principle of incompletion: the need to recognize that design is
an ongoing and iterative process.
Socio-technical design involves more forethought, planning and incre-
mental change than BPR, which is faster, more risky and more exciting. As
defined by the Tavistock Group, this process was facilitated by either a
consultant or a manager, and followed the steps below. Some of these
activities may look a bit quaint these days. When compared with BPR, the
focus might appear rather ‘fluffy ’ as much attention is given to the
psychological needs of the workforce. See Figure 8.4.
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Socio-technical design is still alive and well in some companies, but has
been rather overtaken by the speed and promise of BPR. Although the
incremental, developmental approach is seen to work well, it is often too
slow for many environments where big results are sought quickly,
without taking people off the job to do the research and take action.
Combination approach: PROGRESS methodology
The PROGRESS methodology for process improvement is also offered by
Mumford and Beekman (1994), and brings together the principles of
socio-technical design and the technology focus and efficiency emphasis
of BPR (see Figure 8.5). Key to this method is the belief that the future
users of a system must play a major role in its design. Cross-group design
teams must be set up, sponsored by senior management and facilitated by
a skilled facilitator to achieve their goals.
It is useful to illustrate the PROGRESS approach using a case study.
300
�
Initial scanning
(description of existing system – inputs, outputs, work flow, organization, environment –
compiled by consultant)
Identification of unit operations
(identification of the main stages of the production process)
Identification of variances
(identification of weak links in the systems where it becomes difficult to achieve required standard)
Analysis of social system
(handling of variances, relationship needed for optimum working of the system, extent of flexibility
between roles, pay relationships, staff psychological needs)
How workers see their roles
(do roles meet psychological needs?)
The maintenance and supply systems
(how do these processes affect production?)
The corporate environment
(how do development plans affect the future operation of the department?)
Proposals for change
(actions are suggested after discussion and feedback with all those involved. Proposals for change
must contribute both to the improvement of the production systems and to the social systems.
Proposals normally involve some level of self-management by the production team)
Figure 8.4 The socio-technical design process
Source: Mumford and Beekman (1994)
The applications

County planning office case study
The county planning department was overstretched and ‘in crisis’. Plans
were stacking up, and a three-month delay was the normal experience of
those submitting plans for approval. This was starting to become unten-
able, as people in the community wanted to get on with building work
and could not do so without planning approval.
A consultancy firm using the PROGRESS approach was called in to
work with the planning team. The planning process itself was identified
by the team as being cumbersome and slow, but although they could see
the problems, they had never had the time to sort them out. The consul-
tants planned in some intensive half-day sessions with the planning team
to map out the process and identify weak links. Although the impact of
spending time in the workshop sessions caused even more backlog to
build up for the team, they were confident that they could reduce the
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301
Step one Identify the process you wish to redesign
Step two Define the mission, efficiency objectives, critical success
factors and major problems (variances)
Step three Describe the environment in which the process takes place
(pressure from outside, market conditions etc)
Step four Describe the process as it is at present (often missed out in
BPRI): tasks, variances, value chain, structure
Step five List the variances (weak links in the system, where standards
are hard to achieve consistently)
Step six List and rank value adding activities
Step seven Analyse the social system – who works with whom and how,
required relationships, knowledge of each other’s roles
Step eight Job satisfaction analysis – good fits and bad fits
Step nine Probable or possible new developments
Step ten Future strategy of the organization
Step eleven Proposals for change – based on above information, and in
discussion with the team
Figure 8.5 The PROGRESS methodology for process improvement
Source: Mumford and Beekman (1994)

planning cycle time (from arrival of the application to sending out of
approval) by 30 per cent if they focused on it for long enough and drew
out some simple agreed actions.
Various core problems were identified:
• Seating arrangements were not optimal. The department was split
between two buildings for historical reasons. Time was being wasted
going to and fro, looking for people and searching for things.
• Lack of knowledge of different roles in the team was causing misun-
derstanding and friction.
• One administrator was particularly overloaded with tasks that she
was finding extremely boring.
• Lack of a cataloguing system meant that time was wasted searching
for paper-based items.
• The planning officers were often out of the office, but were not acces-
sible. It was impossible to get messages to them, which was in turn
holding up decision-making processes.
The following actions were agreed:
• The team was moved so that they could all sit in the same office.
• Four people were asked to learn more about each other ’s roles by
spending two hours a week together on joint projects.
• The administrator shared out her ‘boring’ tasks on a weekly basis.
• A simple computer-based cataloguing system was introduced.
• Planning officers were given a shared mobile phone, which they used
to check every half-day for messages.
These simple measures resulted in a 27 per cent reduction in cycle time of
the planning process. The department started to reduce the backlog, and
life became less stressful for everyone.
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CHANGING THE INFORMATION CULTURE
One of the difficulties with implementing
new IT systems is getting people to use them
in the manner intended. There are many
horror stories of expensive IT investments
that are never fully incorporated into daily
organizational life.
Does the introduction of technology auto-
matically change behaviour? Our experience
says that this does not happen. In the worst
case the new technology reinforces the habits
and attitudes already present. (See the
example in the box.) Organizations need to do
more than simply change the IT equipment and systems available if they
want to experience a radical shift in behaviour. A culture change may be
required to create the shifts in information sharing required, because the
introduction of new IT systems alone will not achieve this, suggests
Davenport (1994). He says, ‘It shouldn’t surprise anyone that human
nature can throw a wrench into the best-laid IT plans, yet technocrats are
constantly caught off-guard by the “irrational” behaviour of “end-users”’.
He says that what is important is how people use information, not how
they use technology.
IMPROVING THE SALES PROCESS
THROUGH THE USE OF IT?
We recruited George in January. He was a dynamic salesman, brought in to
boost our capacity to develop major accounts. George had used this great IT
system in his old company, and encouraged us all to come to a presentation
about what this type of system could offer.
The proposed system would allow sales people to share information about
customers and contacts. He said this would boost our capacity to plan our
sales visits, and partner with each other to work more creatively with existing
and potential clients. It sounded good.
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We bought the system in June. It was pretty simple to use, and everyone
seemed in favour, so there should have been no issues. After two months, only
George and two other sales people were using the system and updating it regu-
larly. This was out of a team of 12 of us. People just weren’t used to sharing
information in this way, and as we were still measured on our individual sales
targets, there was no incentive to help others by revealing our contacts.
George got really frustrated, and accepted another job by the end of November.
Sales executive in electronics company
Perhaps we need to forget about technology for the moment, and look at
existing information sharing habits and develop some goals for behaviour
change. But what are the rules governing information sharing behaviour?
Davenport states the information facts of life:
• Most of the information in organizations – and most of the informa-
tion people really care about – is not on computers.
• Managers prefer to get information from people rather than
computers; people add value to raw information by interpreting it
and adding context.
• The more complex and detailed an information management
approach, the less likely it is to change anyone’s behaviour.
• All information does not have to be common; an element of flexibility
and disorder is desirable.
• The more a company knows and cares about its core business area, the
less likely employees will be to agree on a common definition of it.
• If information is power and money, people will not share it easily.
• The willingness of individuals to use a specified information format is
directly proportional to how much they have participated in defining
it, or trust others who did.
• To make the most of electronic communications, employees must first
learn to communicate face to face.
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• Since people are important sources and integrators of information,
any maps of information should include people.
• There is no such thing as information overload; if information is really
useful, our appetite for it is insatiable.
IT systems such as Lotus Notes and other forms of groupware are often
readily taken up by employees because of the range of ways of sharing
information offered. However, people need to have time to explore and
learn about the possibilities of these systems so that they can make best
use of them. E-mail is now taken for granted, but also has downsides such
as ‘non-information overload’ rather than information overload. Non-
relevant e-mails take time to scan, process and delete. It is almost too easy
to share information via e-mail, and people will do it for their own
reasons (such as covering their backs, making themselves look good,
bringing network power into play and making others look bad) rather
than for the benefit of the recipient.
IT systems are expensive to implement. Therefore, it would be benefi-
cial if executives could start to see the difference between deciding to
implement an IT system, and deciding to change the company ’s infor-
mation-sharing habits. Experience shows us that the first will certainly
not guarantee the second, and the second often requires a culture
change which requires energy, commitment, sponsorship and clear
direction (see Chapter 8).
NEW RULES FOR A NEW AGE
As we were writing this chapter, we noticed an interesting article in the
Harvard Business Review entitled ‘IT doesn’t matter ’ (Carr, 2003). The
writer suggested that IT is an infrastructure technology, rather than a
leading edge one. This means that it is no longer a scarce resource that
can give an organization an important competitive edge. It is now readily
available at less cost, but companies are still investing.
For the last 25 years companies have been investing in IT systems to the
point where they are now firmly built into the infrastructure of
commerce. Compare this with the progress of the railway, or the elec-
tricity generator. At certain points during this progression there have
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305

been moments when companies have gained a competitive advantage
from being the first to implement a particular technology; however this is
now starting to level off, and so should investment plans.
The three new rules for IT management offered by Carr give some
guidelines for those ready to review their IT investment strategy:
• Spend less. Carr says that companies with the biggest IT investments
rarely post the best financial results. The focus should now be on
ensuring that you do not put your company at a cost disadvantage,
because the competitive gains will be minimal.
• Follow, don’t lead. The longer you wait to buy IT systems, the more you
will get for your money. Carr says that it is unwise to be on the cutting
edge, with the possibility that software or hardware is unproven.
• Focus on vulnerabilities, not opportunities. Companies need to pay
more attention to security and network vulnerabilities, as well as
systems reliability and minimizing downtime. IT spend should be
carefully controlled, and resources managed in an economic way.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
It is difficult to align organizational strategy with IT strategy, but unless
this is done the two strategies can drift apart, causing the organization
major problems, especially if strategy changes, or enterprise-wide
approaches are sought. Organizations need to assess where they are on
the strategic grid (factory, strategic, support, turnaround) to decide how
closely linked these strategies need to be, and to decide how and what
sort of senior management attention IT deserves.
Strategy and IT decision making can become dangerously decoupled
through lack of communication and understanding between business
managers and IT managers. IT systems begin to drift away from their
original purpose, and may actually begin to limit the company ’s possibil-
ities for information sharing and therefore damage its future. In this case
it may be beneficial to generate a list of ‘guiding principles’ to enable clear
decision making by all managers.
IT management needs to be taken more seriously. IT managers are
often left out of the decision-making loop and excluded from the core
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decision-making process in an organization. They become mere ‘imple-
menters’ of other people’s solutions. IT management skills need to be
present not only within IT departments, but all over the organization.
IT people need to learn more about organizational change processes. IT
people have been traditionally uninterested in anything except tech-
nology, which has led to a division between designing the IT system (IT’s
responsibility) and realizing the benefits by getting people to use it well
(business managers’ responsibility). This is changing, but not fast enough.
IT people now need to shift their competency from being technical
experts, to being specialists with change management skills.
Human-oriented processes for implementing IT systems work better
than processes that have a purely technical focus, and incremental process
change has a better record of success than radical process change.
Excitement about ‘radical’ process change has led to a belief that only
radical changes bring radical results. BPR (business process re-engi-
neering) has not brought all the hoped-for benefits, because of its lack of
focus on people and the inherently risky nature of radical process transfor-
mation. It is highly probable that incremental, more human-oriented solu-
tions such as those based on socio-technical design actually work better.
If a change in information-sharing habits is required, this means
addressing the change as you would a cultural change. Problems come
when senior managers and IT people believe that technology will automat-
ically change behaviour. Often the reverse happens: the new technology
reinforces the habits and attitudes already present. A culture change may
be required to create the shifts in information sharing required, because the
introduction of new IT systems alone will not achieve this.
Chief executives have started to over-value the power of IT, beyond the
strategic gains it can really offer. IT is not now a scarce resource, but a fact
of life. Some say that IT’s importance has diminished, and that organiza-
tions need to approach IT investment and management in a very
different way, allowing others to experiment with new systems before
deciding to buy, and only investing where there is vulnerability.
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Part Three
Emerging inquiries
You can tell whether a man is clever by his answers.
You can tell whether a man is wise by his questions.
Naguib Mahfouz (Nobel Prize Winner)
Although this book has the subtitle ‘A complete guide to the models, tools
and techniques of organizational change’, that is, of course, not the case.
However, we have endeavoured to research and write about what
academics and practitioners have discovered about the world of organi-
zational change. We have added our own experience and insight into the
equation as well.
Since the first edition was published we have been pursuing a number
of our own inquiries into the nature of change, and we include two of
these perspectives in Part Three. In Chapter 9 we look at how you might
manage change which is complex rather than simple, and some of the
tools and techniques which can assist. We conclude, in Chapter 10, by
asking the question ‘Is there one right way of managing change?’
Hopefully by now, you will recognize that there isn’t. However, we can
understand how change fails and some of the key questions which you
need to ask as you enter the world of change management.
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9
Complex change
INTRODUCTION
Since the first edition of this book, some interesting new ideas have really
started to take hold in the world of organizational development. Ideas on
understanding organizations using complexity science and the notion of
emergence rather than managed change are now being grasped and
worked with by leaders and consultants alike. It is as though we are
appreciating anew the possibility that not everything can be planned and
controlled, and that even having a strong vision only gets you so far.
Sometimes change happens in non-linear and chaotic ways, neither
bottom-up nor top-down, and whether you believe in fate, or the stars, or
the fundamentals of biology, or in the sheer randomness of life, one man
or woman may really feel quite small in the face of it.
In Chapter 3 on Organizational Change, we discussed the metaphor of
flux and transformation and briefly explored the assumptions that
underpin this view of organizations. The flux and transformation
metaphor could equally well be referred to as the complexity metaphor.
Here, we explore this metaphor a bit further.
This chapter looks at a range of different approaches to understanding
and dealing with complex organizational change. The key headings are:
310

• when is change complex?
• understanding complexity science;
• tools that support complex change processes;
• the role of leaders in complex change.
WHEN IS CHANGE COMPLEX?
It is easy to say when change is not complex. Installing a new phone
system, or implementing a ready-made IT system, or organizing an office
move are all the types of change activity that benefit from a well-planned,
controlled approach. Any change which has a high ‘technical’ element to
it lends itself to more linear methods. Although the above changes may
be complicated, they do tend to happen more easily if the details can be
organized efficiently.
Restructuring programmes, cultural change initiatives, outsourcing,
mergers, acquisitions and strategic-led change, especially when a large
number of people are involved, can all be seen as complex change. These
are changes that involve so many individuals, layers of activity, areas of
focus and so many factors that cannot be pre-thought out that there will
be a need for people to struggle and argue and work their way through
to an unpredictable outcome.
The advantages of understanding the concept of complexity are many.
Managers in today’s organizations are often trained to think in purely
analytical, rational ways. We are taught to see things independently rather
than inter-dependently. Current mainstream management thinking is
generally based on a mixture of cognitive psychology – which focuses on
motivational goals and behaviour – together with scientific methods
designed to map out and organize tasks, such as process engineering or
project management. These disciplines do not leave much space for the
possibility of complexity; the possibility that a contained ‘muddle’ may
well sort itself out given the right conditions.
When managers begin to appreciate how complex processes work, they
can release themselves from too much over-managing, and begin to think
about the different needs they should be fulfilling as leaders who
encourage healthy, creative change to emerge.
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UNDERSTANDING HOW COMPLEXITY SCIENCE APPLIES
TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Complexity science has been drawn from the scientific world, and
applied to organizations in an attempt to understand and explain the
behaviour of large systems. There is no formal definition of what
complexity science means in an organizational context, nor indeed how it
is best applied to organizations.
In this discipline, large systems are often referred to as complex adaptive
systems. Complex adaptive systems are made up of multiple intercon-
nected elements, and have the capacity to change and learn from experi-
ence. Complexity science is a collection of theories which seek to explain
how these systems work. This branch of science is eclectic and draws its
ideas from many other areas of science, for example the fields of neurology
and microbiology. Examples of such large complex systems are communi-
ties, the stock market, the human body’s immune system and the brain.
One of the most intriguing features of complex adaptive systems to
those who study them in the context of human social organization, is
their capacity to produce coherence, continuity and transformation in the
absence of any external blueprint or nominated designer. The control of a
complex adaptive system is highly dispersed and decentralized, and the
whole system’s behaviour appears to arise from competition and cooper-
ation among the local agents in the system, coupled with sensitivity to
amplifying or dampening feedback. Even if a major part of the system is
out of action, the system continues to function. A good example of this in
the field of biology is the human brain.
At the Santa Fe Institute in New Mexico, where scientists have studied
the behaviour of computer-simulated complex networks for some time,
the following six characteristics of a complex system were identified:
• there is no central control;
• there is an inherent underlying structure within the system;
• there is feedback in the system;
• there is nonlinearity; things do not happen in a cause and effect manner;
• emergence is an outcome of the system. This happens without
planned intent;
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• the system is non-reducible. This means that you cannot understand
the system’s behaviour by looking at one part. It is necessary to
instead look at a representative slice of all of the parts.
Eric Dent of George Washington University (1999) proposed that our
whole world view is beginning to shift from a rational world view to an
emerging one. It is as if our ‘technical’ rational reactions to political or
social situations are not working any more. For example, the rising
demand for catalytic converters for cars represents our increased concern
for the environment. However, the effects in parts of Africa where the plat-
inum to produce these converters is mined are very negative. People are
being moved out of their homelands, health and safety is not being care-
fully attended to, and workers are losing their lives through avoidable
accidents due to the commercial drive for production. Our approach isn’t
holistic; it’s partial. And we are worried about it. Dent says we have to shift
our thinking if we are to be successful. He produced a helpful chart that
illustrates the shifts required. The highlights are shown in table 9.1.
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313
Table 9.1 World view descriptors
Traditional world view Emerging world view
Reductionism Holism
Linear causality Mutual causality
Objective reality Perspectival reality
Observer outside the observation Observer in the observation
‘Survival of the fittest’ Adaptive self-organization
Focus on discrete entities Focus on relationships between entities
Linear relationships Non-linear relationships
– marginal increases – critical mass thresholds
Either/or thinking Polarity thinking
Focus on directives Focus on feedback
Newtonian physics perspectives Quantum physics perspectives
– influence occurs as direct result – influence occurs through iterative,
of force exerted from one person non-linear feedback
to another
– the world is predictable – the world is novel
Focus on pace Focus on patterns
Focus on results or outcomes Focus on ongoing behaviour

Dent (1999) sees the list on the right as an extension of the list on the
left, rather than replacing it.
Capra (1982) explains why we now need to see the world in different
ways:
Modern science has come to realize that all scientific theories are approxi-
mations to the true nature of reality, and that each theory is valid for a
certain range of phenomena. Beyond this range it no longer gives a satisfac-
tory description of nature, and new theories have to be found to replace the
old one, or rather to extend it by improving the approximation.
Systemic views of organizations, such as the concept of the learning orga-
nization promoted by Senge (1993) owe much to the influence of
complexity science. The four basic assumptions that Konigswieser and
Hillebrand (2005) identify in their book about systemic consultancy
provide a useful translation of the principles of complexity for use in
organizational work:
• Organizations do not function like trivial machines. They do not
simply work at the push of a button and can therefore neither be
controlled directly nor completely understood.
• They constantly reproduce themselves through communication, are
in a state of permanent change and continually create new order
structures in the form of retained stories, recorded successes and
agreed perception, patterns and expectations.
• This ‘self-image’ gains intensity in the sense constructs and views of
the world projected as models from inside the system to the environ-
ment. Internal order structures, sense constructs and images of the
world create security and stability within the organization, yet at the
same time obstruct its ability to react to changes in a dynamic, rapidly
changing environment.
• Organizations can learn from their environment not only in time
of crisis and pressure, but also proactively by assuming an active
and creative role in reshaping themselves and their respective
environments.
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There are some important principles and ideas that are embedded within
complexity science, that are useful for managers and consultants who are
tackling organizational change issues:
• self-organization and emergence;
• rules of interaction;
• attractors;
• power relations;
• forms of communicating;
• polarities and the management of paradox;
• feedback.
Each of these is described and explained below, together with its signifi-
cance for organizational change.
Self-organization and emergence
The principle of self-organization is central to
complexity science. The belief behind this principle
is that we live in a universe that seeks organization.
Patterns and structures emerge that are not planned
or pre-designed. Old structures disappear and new
ones come into being. Change is happening all the
time. Individuals within a system who aren’t
capable of change may eventually disappear.
In the biological sciences there are some good
examples of self-organization working extremely
efficiently. Bacteria, for example, operate as a global super-organism, able
to swap genes and ‘understand’ and absorb each others’ learning. No
single bacterium has the knowledge of the whole, or understands how
everything works. The bacteria, instead of being all-knowing, are superb
at learning from each other, very quickly and efficiently. This is why
bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics develop so quickly. In this type of
system model the world knows how to create itself, as individuals we are
simply partners in the process, not the ones responsible for it.
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315

Patricia Shaw (2002) explains the parameters surrounding self-organi-
zation by referring to an experiment performed by scientists at the Santa
Fe Institute. The scientists modelled a large complex system using a large
number of digital agents. Their experiments illustrated that low connec-
tivity, low diversity and sluggish interaction between agents tended to
result in stable, frozen or ‘stuck’ patterns of interaction. Conversely, high
connectivity, high diversity and intensive interaction between agents
results in disorder with no visible patterns arising. However, when the
parameters were at certain critical values, the behaviour produced order
and disorder at the same time. Langton (1992) has dubbed the
phenomenon of complex networks interacting in such conditions as
being ‘at the edge of chaos’, as the patterns produced were neither wholly
random nor wholly repetitive. We can transfer this idea to the domain of
human interaction, but must wonder then who controls the parameters,
if anyone does.
In economics, the market economy is said to be a self-organizing
process. Some economists say that central economic planning, ie what
will be produced by whom and how profits will be distributed, disturbs
the efficiency of self-organizing markets. Others say that the propensity
of individuals to pursue self-interest can be so damaging that govern-
ments must intervene and control the economy via taxation. The latter is
an argument for a more controlled approach.
In human social interaction, techniques such as open space, future
search (see later in this chapter), production cells and self-managed teams
all use the principle of self-organization.
Rules of interaction
Complex adaptive systems self-organize and evolve over time using
simple local rules which result in global complex behaviour. However, the
system works without the rules of a central authority governing
behaviour. Local rules are changed as experience accumulates. In a
human system, these might be limits on activity or altered social norms.
In human social systems these rules are not necessarily explicit and
people are not always aware of them. Local rules exist in peoples’ heads.
Change occurs when either the local rules change, or the pattern of
connectedness changes across the global system. Stacey (2001) argues
that this happens in the absence of an external blueprint. If we transfer
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316

this thinking to large complex organizations, this means that the tradi-
tional role of directors and senior managers, who together may aspire
to directly influence local behaviour, is unlikely to have the desired
effect, and may end up stifling creative and healthy change. It maybe
that the essential cultural paradigm of the organization needs to shift
from within.
Attractors
Systems in chaos appear to fall
under the influence of different
‘attractors’. Lorenz (in Gleick,
1987), the mathematician and
meteorologist, showed how
complex systems can combine
order and disorder, and flip
from one patterned state to
another as random, non-linear events trigger a sudden move from being
under the influence of one attractor to that of another. See Figure 9.1 to see
how this might look in an organizational setting.
To understand this at a conceptual level, imagine sitting in a home
office. At the desk in front of you there are papers, Post-its, pens, a laptop
computer, photos of your family, a list of the things you have to do today.
Outside the window you can clearly see trees blowing in the wind, a
squirrel reaching for nuts on the bird table, the sun shining great stripes
of light through the bushes onto the grass. In this scenario, you are
caught between two attractors. As one comes into focus, the other fades
away. So it appears to be in complex systems; these attractors ultimately
define the way the system’s behaviour will unfold. In organizational life
it is not possible to dictate what the attractors will be as these emerge
naturally, but it is possible to try to understand the attractors that other
people in organizations are influenced by (eg their professions, trade
unions, a set of habits) and to try to create an attractor that offers true
value for people.
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317

Power relations
Power is an inescapable influence in organizational life. Within complex
systems, power differences can be described as novel and interesting,
creating diversity and therefore giving rise to possible change. When
thinking about organizations as complex responsive processes of relating,
it is possible to see power and communications as very similar entities.
Both have the effect of either constraining or enabling people in their
relationships with each other.
Power in organizations generally arises through patterned talking,
and that patterned talking leads us to define who is ‘in’ and who is ‘out’.
For instance, if measurement and control is ‘in’, then those who are
skilled in talking about this way of operating will be ‘in’, while those
who are more interested in emergence and chaos will be ‘out’, and will
have to find a way of representing their ideas and suggestions in the
dominant language, hard though that may be. If they do not do this,
they will begin to feel excluded. This in turn may lead to competition
and rivalry. Stacey comments
The consequent feelings of inclusion and exclusion then have significant
effects on the further evolution of joint cooperation, tending to disrupt it
through competition and rivalry… Organizational change is a shift in patterns
of inclusion and exclusion. It is in this process that organizational identity
Emerging inquiries
318
What are the forces
that keep the
organization in its
current patter?
Structures? Rules?
Habits?
What are the
characteristics and
rules of the new
attractor going to
be?
How can we remain
open to emergent
self-organization?
How can small
changes work to
generate large
effects?
1
3
2
Figure 9.1 How attractors work in organizations
Source: adapted from Morgan (1998)

emerges, that is, the purposes and inspirations for carrying on being together
are continually reproduced and potentially transformed, causing themselves.
Stacey, 2001
Forms of communicating
In complex systems, communication occurs between near neighbours. It
is short-range. The effects of an agent’s actions are fed back and
responded to through local interactions. These effects can be amplifying
or dampening. In organizational life therefore, the more important inter-
actions are the day-to-day things that happen in an individual’s neck of
the woods. Grand statements and visions may be made by senior people,
but it’s the local version of that which really influences behaviour. How
does the local boss respond? What sense are we making of this locally?
Polarities and the management of paradox
Systems that are moving from one dominant attractor to
another experience struggles with paradox. As a system
begins to fundamentally change, ‘bifurcation’ or ‘choice
points’ present themselves which can have a draining effect
on existing energy for change.
For instance, imagine that an organization is trying to create more
headroom for middle managers to take part in decision making. The old
way of operating involved being given a non-negotiable annual target,
and putting a great deal of energy into making it work. The new way
means more discussion and more engagement. However, old patterns of
performance management and career progression rely on a reputation
for ‘toughness’ and high personal achievement. So the polarity between
‘toughness’ and ‘cooperation’ starts to be an important one. This is where
leaders who manage paradox well can be most useful. What elements of
both toughness and cooperation are useful in the new order?
The necessity for either/or thinking is one of the great myths of Western
culture. This occurs when two seeming opposites in any situation are
seen as one ‘good’, one ‘bad’. For instance, cooperation is ‘good’ and
toughness ‘bad’. This can easily lead to the assumption that ‘I am right,
and you are all wrong’. Either/or thinking demands that for something to
be the ‘right answer ’, there must be no contradictions. Combining options
or blurring the boundaries is seen as illogical and muddled.
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Once the seeming opposites are seen as a continuum, the polarization
sets in. For instance, one director that we work with sees ‘team working’
as the polar opposite of ‘independent working’. This creates stagnation in
his thinking. However, when the continuum is translated into a graph,
the possibility that both of these may coexist, or that both contain both
‘good’ and ‘bad’ elements begins to be visible. See Figure 9.2.
Polarities are sets of opposites which cannot function well independently.
The two sides of a polarity are interdependent, so one side cannot be
‘right’ or the ‘solution’ at the expense of the other. It seems that many of
the current challenges within organizations are about managing polari-
ties or paradoxes, rather than solving problems. So for example, the argu-
ment about whether top-down or bottom-up change works best implies
that one is right, and one is wrong. If these are seen as polarities that need
to co-exist and both have their good points and bad points, it is possible
to reframe the issues that might bring organizational stagnancy by
creating positive new realities.
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Either/or thinking
Polarity thinking
Team working
= good
Te
a
m
w
o
rk
in
g
Independent
working = bad
Independent working
Figure 9.2 Moving from ‘either/or ’ thinking to embrace
‘polarity’ thinking

Feedback
One of the characteristics of a complex system is that feedback exists within
it. The non-linear nature of change within a complex system means that
linear cause and effect analyses do not work. Mutual causality is about
understanding how change evolves through looping interactions which can
be modelled as positive and negative feedback loops. By doing this type of
analysis, it is possible to see where clusters of positive feedback loops create
vicious circles, and where very small changes can lead to very significant
outcomes. In organizations, delayed feedback or counter-responses may de-
stabilize the system by eliciting exaggerated responses or behaviours.
Stacey (2002) refers to the interaction between agents in a complex system
as ‘gesture and response’. Within systems that are richly enough connected,
and have enough difference within them, this self-organized interaction of
both gesture and response will produce both coherence and novelty.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 9.1 Think of an organization you know well. Taking Dent’s theory of
shifting from traditional to emerging world views (Table 9.1),
discuss with a colleague how a shift in world view might change
what happens in this organization.
Q 9.2 How would a greater belief in self-organization change your
actions as a manager, coach or OD practitioner?
Q 9.3 Consider the paradoxes that exist in your own life as it shifts and
changes, or those that exist in an organization you know that is
going through a change process. How can these be managed well?
TOOLS THAT SUPPORT COMPLEX CHANGE
Storytelling
Storytelling is a type of sense making, which helps
us to shape our understanding of the complex
goings-on in the world. People tell stories to share
wisdom with each other, entertain each other, influ-
ence each other and help each other make sense of
the world. Stories can be created collectively in the
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moment, or carefully crafted by individuals before they are told. Their
essential logic is temporal. They generally move from the past to the
present, and tend to open up possibilities for the future. So, paradoxically,
stories are distinct ways of making sense of the past and showing how the
past leads to the future, which in turn affects the present. Hearing a story
may change how we view our current options, and the way we make
sense of what has already happened.
There’s a difference between telling a story and giving an example. A
story has a plot, and characters and emotional and sensory detail. In a
story you can examine both sides of an argument; a manager can tell a
story in which a proposed change is simultaneously awful and exciting.
This is more engaging and more real than an announcement which says
‘The change is coming. Stop moaning and get on with it.’ A story can also
help someone to walk in your shoes, to see things from your point of
view. It can help others to see things they are not currently seeing.
Leaders can use storytelling to work with their teams to make sense of
their own past, present and future, or to convey to their teams how they
are making sense of it all. It is a way of communicating without over-
simplifying. Instead of being used to convince others of a particular
course of action, a story can be used to awaken sleeping wisdom and to
lead to good conversations about what to do next.
Shaw (2002) says of the practice of collective storytelling:
The kind of storytelling I am alluding to is not that of completed tales but
narrative-in-the-making. Rather than stating aims, objective, outcomes, roles
as abstract generalities, people use a narrative mode. The starting point is
often ‘the story so far’. Someone recounts and at the same time accounts for
or justifies the way they make sense of events and their own participation…
As others associate and ‘fill in’ an increasingly complex patterned sense-
making is co-created. This is an absorbing process because a person’s iden-
tity in this situation is evolving at the same time. We are not ‘just talking’. We
are acting together to shape ourselves and our world.
Dialogue
Dialogue is a central tool for those interested in dealing with
complexity. Dialogue is different from other forms of communication
such as debate or discussion, or ordinary conversation. William Isaacs,
who founded the MIT Dialogue Project, has been influential in bringing
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these ideas and practices into organizational settings. This way of
talking pays particular attention to the meaning that unfolds when
people communicate collectively.
Isaacs sees dialogue as not merely about talking, but about taking
action, and at its very best it includes meaning making and the expression
of feelings and leads towards powerful action. Dialogue is about thinking
together rather than thinking alone, and demands that we both let go of
our own positional views and begin to face and hear about other people’s
experiences and realities.
Isaacs talks about ‘choice points’ in a conversation. A key choice point
in a conversation which involves some deliberation is whether to either
defend your own view or position, or suspend it and therefore listen
without resistance. Defending usually leads to either productive analyt-
ical dialectic or unproductive verbal brawling. Suspending is more likely
to lead to an exploration of the deeper questions, a new framing of key
issues and the possibility of reaching collective, refreshing new insights.
Whole system work
Increasingly, organizations and public bodies are seeing the need to bring
whole systems together to tackle complex and messy issues with multiple
stakeholders. Patricia Shaw (2002) talks about these sorts of events:
Carefully designed and facilitator-led large group events are an increasingly
popular example of ‘intervention’ into the ongoing processes of organizing.
These are intensive interactive conferences intended to stimulate new forms
of action to address ambitious change in complex situations. Participants are
invited to identify issues and create self-managing small groups to generate
proposals for future work. The result is a public plan of action.
Open space technology
Harrison Owen, the originator of open space technology, says that his
ideas are probably as old as homo sapiens, it is just that modern-day
wisdom has obscured our instincts and intuition about how gatherings of
people can self-organize to find what is exciting and energizing, and then
makes things happen. Owen’s ideas emerged when he began to notice
that at a regular international symposium that he used to attend, which
used the traditional formal presentation of papers plus orchestrated panel
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discussions, that the real excitement and energy used to burst out in the
coffee breaks. He wondered if it were possible to make the symposium
one big coffee break.
An open space session is typically a large gathering that is clearly
focused around one topic, has no set agenda, no organizing committee
and a small band of facilitators. The agenda is discovered by partici-
pants who wish to pursue topics posting these on a noticeboard, seeing
who signs up and then running these various conversations simultane-
ously. People can move from one conversation to another, and a record
of each discussion with issues ranked and next steps identified for the
critical issues is given to every participant. It seems that open space
represents Owen’s belief that the one thing we spend our time doing
so much of – organizing and seeking control – is not only unavailable
but unnecessary.
When is it appropriate? It works well when there is a very pressing
issue that needs to be sorted out yesterday, when there is a great deal of
complexity, when there is conflict and when there is a lot of diversity in
the people who need to get together to solve the issue.
There are four Principles and one Law of open space sessions. The four
Principles are:
1. Whoever comes are the right people – people demonstrate that they
care by showing up;
2. Whatever happens is the only thing that could have – this helps
people to focus on the here and now, not what could have been, or
should have been;
3. Whenever it starts is the right time – creativity is not dictated by
the clock;
4. Whenever it’s over, it’s over – don’t waste time! When the conversa-
tion is finished, move on.
The one Law is called ‘the law of two feet’, which
means when you are no longer listening or
contributing, move on to somewhere more to your
liking. This is not just about pleasing yourself, but
about taking responsibility for your own learning
rather than sulking or blaming others for not
making things more stimulating. Owen says that the Principles and Law
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are not really what makes open space work, it’s just that these statements
free people up to do what they would do naturally, given a chance.
Future search
Future search is a way of conferencing that is underpinned by research
by Weisbord et al (1992) into the conditions under which diverse groups
seemed to be able to cooperate. Previous work by North American and
Australian social scientists was also highly influential. Future search
involves many people getting together for a large planning meeting,
and is based on principles that enable diverse groups to get together
and cooperate, be very task-focused, and quickly translate their energies
into action.
These principles are:
• get the ‘whole system’ in the room – inviting a cross-section of all
parties who care about the issue;
• explore the ‘whole elephant’ before acting on a part – get everyone
talking about the same big picture;
• put common ground and future focus at the centre, and treat conflicts
as information, rather than items to be ‘sorted’;
• encourage self-management and responsibility taking for action by
participants.
The conditions for success are:
• encourage full attendance – discourage part-timers;
• meet under healthy conditions – with food and snacks, and adequate
breaks;
• work across three days (sleep twice) – things need time to be absorbed;
• ask for voluntary public commitments to next steps before people
leave.
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World Café
World Café is a conversational process which
enables groups of people to talk together, explore
and find their creativity about an issue that matters.
This is not about problem solving or managed
action. This simple but innovative method was
developed by founders Juanita Brown and David
Isaacs in 1995.
The World Café Community Foundation can be
found at www.theworldcafe.com and is an excellent
source of information. The following box summa-
rizes their approach to this technique.
The method starts by setting the context: what is the topic, who needs to
be invited, how long do we need, and what is the best outcome we can
hope for? A hospitable space needs to be chosen and prepared with
refreshments and comfort, rather than cold impersonality. A café ambiance
is then created, with small tables with table cloths – perhaps the type that
can be written on – candles, and flowers, with markers ready for writing.
Compelling questions are then posed to the groups. Sometimes only
one question is used, and sometimes there are deeper levels of inquiry.
Facilitators need to find questions that are relevant to the concerns of
group members and that provoke interest and energy. Questions that
reveal assumptions, enable people to reflect more deeply, seek what is
useful and open up new possibilities are all effective. Questions that
focus on definitions, or the truth or what went wrong seem less effective.
Turn-taking in the discussion is important to ensure everyone can
contribute, as is the connection of diverse perspectives. People are encour-
aged to record their emerging discussion visually on the tablecloth using the
pens, and then move to other tables to add to their emerging pictures. One
person remains at the original table to summarize what has been discussed,
and new arrivals begin by sharing the threads of their previous table discus-
sion. New possibilities begin to open up, and the conversation deepens.
At the end of the conversations, tables are invited to distil the parts of
the discussion that have been most meaningful for them and share it with
the rest of the tables. In response, other tables may be invited to say what
was surprising or new in what they have heard, and share only on that
line of inquiry. All this is often captured on flipcharts by the facilitator.
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The final stage involves a short reflective meditation by the group, and
then answers to the following questions are invited:
• What is emerging here?
• If the whole group could speak, what would it say?
• Did we notice any patterns, and if so, what might they indicate?
• What deeper knowledge or understanding are we now holding?
Ideas used by permission from The World Café Community Foundation
at www.theworldcafe.com
THE ROLE OF LEADERS IN COMPLEX CHANGE
In Chapter 4 we talked about the leaders who operate using the assump-
tions of the flux and transformation metaphor as ‘facilitators of emergent
change’. This gives us a good starting point for thinking about the role of
a leader in complex change. We also said that three main tasks of this type
of leader were to get the governing principles right, enable the right
amount of connectivity and amplify important issues, but that this set of
three tasks merely scratches the surface. What more can be said about
these leaders who facilitate emergent change?
Harrison Owen (1997), pioneer of open space technology, and
passionate believer in self-organization, says that the job of leaders is
about ‘liberating the human spirit to achieve its potential’. He points out
that the illusion of control and organization is where many leaders waste
a lot of time and energy.
It seems that leaders need to look beyond the confines of structure and
organization if they are to truly facilitate emergence. Wheatley (1999)
quotes a rather lovely verse that captures the struggle many experience
when we try to grasp the realities of a complex world:
She who wants to have right without wrong,
Order without disorder,
Does not understand the principles
Of heaven and earth.
She does not know how things hang together.
Chang Tzu, fourth century B.C.
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Wheatley urges leaders to lead through vision, values and ethics. This does
not mean crafting a single vision which shines so brightly that it has its own
power, but co-creating a vision that permeates the organization and
harnesses the organization’s own self-organizing power. However, the
difficulty for many leaders is that vision and value seem ‘a bit soft’ when
compared to traditional forms of authority, and they may feel powerless
and somehow naked without the familiar controlling mechanisms.
Wheatley also emphasizes the importance of developing a new rela-
tionship with information so that it is embraced for all its vibrant, living
qualities. She notices an unhelpful habit in leaders. Rather than looking
for small differences in the information we receive, often leaders seek
certainty and notice only the big trends and large gaps. They may value
quick, surface decisions over wiser, deeper ones. She says that leaders
need to see information as nourishment rather than power, and keep the
flow well stocked.
Wheatley goes on to say that in this world of chaos and complexity we
appear to need leaders rather than bosses; people who assist their
employees in embodying organizational values and carry a strong sense
of purpose. Policies and procedures curtail creativity and end up failing
to control as effectively as a strong sense of purpose and some clear,
hard rules.
Scharmer (2000) is a great believer in self-organization too, but he also
sees a more spiritual dimension to organizational or community endeav-
ours. As we sense and intuit together, something sacred happens, and out
of the space between us something new emerges.
Scharmer refers to leadership as ‘sensing and actualizing emerging
futures’. He identifies two important methods of learning that are both
important for sustained organizational success. The first is to reflect on
the past in a way that loosens our traditional views of what’s happened.
The second is to begin to sense and embody the emergent future, as it
appears out of the mist between us, instead of re-enacting past patterns.
He talks about the processes of both ‘letting go’ and ‘letting come’,
which leaders need to understand as the root of generative learning.
This process is not about being polite, or getting involved in conflictual
debate or dialectic. It involves true generative and reflective dialogue.
Scharmer sees the leader ’s role as creating the conditions that allow
others to ‘shift the place from which their system operates’. There is a
sacred quality to Scharmer ’s work which takes us far beyond the focus
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on ordinary conversation that sits at the root of complex responsive
process theory.
Presence is another important quality that those writing about the
complex view of change encourage in leaders. Facilitators of emergence
need to embody presence if they are to be truly tuned into the complexi-
ties of organizational life. This means being less preoccupied by the world
of objectives and performance indicators, and more open to the subtle
complexities of the world as they unfold in front of them; more present in
the ‘here and now’ moment.
Senge et al (2005) talk about presence as having an even deeper quality
such as ‘grace’, or what the Buddhists call ‘cessation’. This definition of
presence has a spiritual quality to it. They say that presence occurs when
there is a quieting of the mind, and the normal boundaries between self
and the world begin to melt away. For leaders this means being able to let
go, surrender control and open themselves to the wider needs of the
world. The authors of Presence: Exploring profound change in people, organi-
zations and society each provide a sentence on what this notion of presence
means to each of them:
Jaworski: ‘A profound opening of the heart, carried into action.’
Scharmer: ‘Waking up together… by using the Self as a vehicle for
bringing forth new worlds.’
Flowers: ‘It’s the point where the fire of creation burns and enters the
world through us.’
Senge: ‘We have no idea of our capacity to create the world anew.’
STOP AND THINK!
Q. 9.4 How could you use open space technology or World Café to
good effect in your organization or local community?
Q. 9.5 Imagine yourself in a leadership role in your organization. Maybe
you are in one already. What is your area’s core purpose? What
is the whole organization’s core purpose? This needs to reflect
some value that is being created in the world. What are the few
simple principles that apply to work in your area? (Once you have
these, it will form the foundation for your leadership.)
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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
New thinking on how complexity science can be applied to organiza-
tional problems is developing fast, and becoming more widely known
and understood.
Small, simple or highly convergent change initiatives such as tech-
nology roll-outs are less complex, and less emergent, and therefore less
likely to benefit from being seen through a complexity lens.
‘Complex adaptive systems’ is the name given to large systems by
complexity scientists. These systems are self-organizing, have no external
blueprint, and yet they still have the capacity to produce coherence,
continuity and transformation.
Dent (1999) suggests that our whole world view is beginning to shift
from the rational world view to the emerging one. This is in tune with
much thinking about our ability to see the world as complex and emer-
gent, rather than linear, rational and controllable.
The important elements of complexity science that relate to organiza-
tional work are: self-organization and emergence, rules of interaction,
attractors, power relations, forms of communicating, polarities and the
management of paradox and the role of feedback.
Systems thinking and complexity science have very different roots, and
lead to very different assumptions about how change works.
Storytelling, dialogue, whole systems work, open space technology,
future search and World Café are all tools that support complex change.
Leaders have a different role in complex change from the traditional
organizing or controlling roles of managers. The new role may be referred
to as ‘facilitator of emergent change’. This means leading through vision,
values and ethics. It also means creating generative and reflective
dialogue, and being present to the ‘here and now’.
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10
The right way to manage
change?
INTRODUCTION
In this book we have identified key methods for managing change at an
individual, team and organizational level. By looking at the different ways
we can lead and manage change we have been relatively explicit that there
is not necessarily one right way of doing this. Managing change depends
upon – to take just a few parameters – the context of the change, the type
of change needed, the prevailing culture, the individuals involved and
their personalities, the teams involved and their configurations.
However, this is a question that keeps popping up in our conversations
with clients, and particularly those involved in training people to manage
change. Is there one right way? And if not, can’t we still just give a few
simple guidelines? Perhaps this quest for the truth about change is just a
very human search for the kind of certainty that does not exist. It’s
tempting to provide an elixir; we could seduce you with a false certainty,
but we wouldn’t believe it ourselves. All we can say is, sometimes the
struggle to know is more important than the knowing itself.
331

In this chapter we consider more deeply the question of how change
really works, and if there is one right way to lead it. Firstly we look at the
research about failure rates and success factors of change initiatives. Then
we examine the different ways that organizations get ready for change.
We go on to share some of our explorations about leading change, and
finally to examine how organizations can evaluate change and what they
learn from their successes and failures.
This is tackled under the following headings:
• what the research says.
• different approaches to getting ready for change;
• leading change;
• how do we know whether it’s working or not?
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS
When change goes wrong
Managing organizations at any time can
be problematic, particularly through
times of change. Much of the evidence
in the change management field shows that overly planned change has a
high failure rate.
Despite some individual successes… change remains difficult to pull off, and
few companies manage the process as well as they would like. Most of their
initiatives – installing new technology, downsizing, restructuring, or trying to
change corporate culture – have had low success rates. The brutal fact is that
about 70 per cent of all change initiatives fail.
Beer and Nohria (2000) Harvard Business Review, May-June, 133–141
Three out of four mergers and acquisitions fail to achieve their financial and
strategic objectives.
Marks and Mirvis (2001) Academy of Management Executive, 15, 80–94
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Miller (2002) summarized the findings of a number of inquiries into the
change process:
Only three out of four change initiatives give the return on investment that
leadership forecast… most independent research shows change failure rates
running at about 70 per cent. In other words, only about three out of every
ten initiatives give return on investment that leadership forecast… seven out
of ten change efforts that are critical to organizational success fail to achieve
their intended results.
Independent IT research firm Gartner Group (2000) reports that for major
new corporate systems implementations:
28 per cent are abandoned before completion;
46 per cent are behind schedule or over budget;
80 per cent are not used in the way they were intended to be or not
used at all six months after installation.
In terms of the emotional fallout that change can produce, a recent
McKinsey ’s survey (2006) suggested that only 6 per cent of change
management projects were completely successful and 32 per cent
‘mostly ’ successful; the range of negative emotions were as follows: 44
per cent of people were anxious, 22 per cent confused, 23 per cent frus-
trated and 24 per cent fatigued. And that was for the successful projects.
Figures for the unsuccessful projects were even higher.
A Computer Weekly Project/Programme Management Survey (2003)
looked at over 1,000 IT projects across the UK and accessed their success
and failure rates. The survey was led by Chris Sauer and Christine
Cuthbertson of Oxford University ’s Templeton College, and sponsored
by change management consultancy the French Thornton Partnership.
They found that:
16 per cent of IT projects examined in the survey met all their targets
of budget, time and scope;
55 per cent of projects were completed on time with an average of
overrun of 23 per cent;
41 per cent were completed on or within budget with an average
overrun of 18 per cent;
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333

54 per cent of projects failed to deliver on the planned-for functionality
with an average shortfall of 7 per cent of original specification;
9 per cent of projects were abandoned.
Prosci Research (2007) found that 20 per cent of change management
projects exceeded objectives and 40 per cent met their objectives, leaving
40 per cent only partially or failing to meet objectives; 56 per cent of
projects were behind schedule which included 17 per cent far behind
their schedule. Almost 25 per cent were slightly over budget, with nearly
10 per cent well over budget. What they also found, however, was a clear
link between excellent change management practices and meeting of
objectives, timescales and budgets.
When change goes right
Hiatt and Creasey (2003) of the Change Management Learning Center
highlighted findings from three Prosci Research studies (www.prosci.com).
These studies looked at change management in more than 400 companies
worldwide and found that the greatest contributors to success were:
1. effective sponsorship from senior management in terms of active
visible support, ongoing support throughout the life of the initiative,
acting as role models for the change, communicating and being
ambassadors for change;
2. buy-in from front-line managers and employees which got the
change moving and kept momentum going;
3. continuous and targeted communication throughout the project.
This would be tailored in depth and breadth to the different inter-
ested communities;
4. an experienced credible team who maintained good internal working
relations and also networked into the organization;
5. a well-planned and organized approach which is suited to the type
of change being managed.
One of the most striking conclusions to draw is that employees need to
hear about change from two people – the most senior person involved
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in the change and also their line manager. The senior manager is best
suited to communicating business messages around the change,
whereas an employee’s line manager is best suited to communicating
more personal messages. This ties in with the notion that the overar-
ching vision and strategic direction once communicated needs to be
translated into a local context.
A more recent study from Prosci (2007) highlighted the need for a struc-
tured change management approach: frequent and open communica-
tions, dedicated resources for change and employee participation.
Change Tracking (2008) have looked at change in more than 180 orga-
nizations worldwide and surveyed over 100,000 individuals. The factors
most important to high performance change (that is, improving business
performance and meeting project objectives) were identified and are
summarized below:
• turbulence (conditions such as the magnitude, pace and risks of change):
– risks and roadblocks;
– changes taking place;
• resources:
– training and capability;
– systems and processes;
– project support;
• aligned direction:
– vision and direction;
– communication;
• engagement:
– change leadership (the level of commitment and support provided
by leaders);
– involvement (the level to which people are involved in planning
and implementing change);
• team leadership:
– management skills;
– feeling valued;
– accountability (clear performance objectives and people held
accountable for achieving outcomes);
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• emotional energy:
– passion and drive (positive feelings);
– disturbance (negative feelings such as fears and frustration).
Interestingly, these factors do not all carry the same weighting: factors
such as the need for communication, training and accountability were
found to have a relatively low impact on improving overall business
performance, whereas change leadership, systems and processes, passion
and drive, and to a lesser degree involvement and vision and direction,
were seen as far more important. Mitigating roadblocks and minimizing
disturbance during the change process were also seen as critical.
As we highlighted in Chapters 3 and 6, Kotter (1995) looked at over 100
different organizations going through change and picked out eight key
aspects of the change process which could either lead to a failed initiative
or, if got right, to transformation.
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336
Table 10.1 Why transformation efforts fail
Reason for failure Possible antidotes
Not enough Establish a sense of urgency by:
sense of urgency examining market and competitive realities;
or pressure for identifying and discussing crises, potential crises or major
change opportunities;
ensuring that the current level of dissatisfaction or future threat is
sufficient to kick-start the change and maintain momentum.
Failing to create Form a powerful guiding coalition by:
a sufficiently assembling a group with enough power to lead the change effort;
powerful encouraging the group to work together as a team;
support base ensuring that key stakeholders are engaged and the change team
has the necessary sponsorship, power and authority.
Not developing Create a vision by:
a clear vision creating a vision clear enough to help direct the change effort;
developing strategies for achieving that vision;
having a clear understanding of what you want to achieve from the
change and for it to be lofty, strategic and motivational.

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337
Under- Communicate the vision by:
communicating using every vehicle possible to communicate the new vision and
the vision strategies;
teaching new behaviours by the example of the guiding coalition;
ensuring people are informed and hopefully engaged with the
change by having a shared understanding of and commitment to
the direction of the change.
Permitting Empower others to act on the vision by:
obstacles to block demonstrably tackling obstacles to change;
the new vision encouraging risk taking and non-traditional ideas, activities and
actions;
ensuring that those people who are needed to make the change
happen have the necessary resources, mandates and enabling
mechanisms to achieve their goals.
Failing to create Plan for and create short-term wins by:
short-term wins planning for visible performance improvements;
recognizing and rewarding employees involved in the improvements;
creating improvements which show that progress is clearly being
made towards the ultimate goals through the achievement of
smaller goals along the way and thus demonstrating success and
maintaining momentum.
Not aligning Consolidate improvements and produce still more change by:
structures, changing systems, structures and policies that don’t fit the vision;
systems, policies reinvigorating the process with new projects and themes;
and skills hiring, promoting and developing employees who can implement
the vision;
building on improvements in the organization as and when they
occur and continuing to move forward with change.
Neglecting to Institutionalize new approaches by:
anchor changes articulating the connections between the new behaviours and
firmly in the corporate success;
corporate culture developing the means to ensure leadership development and
succession;
setting up the systems to capture and share knowledge;
ensuring all changes are embedded in the organization and that the
organization is fully aligned.
Source: adapted from Kotter (1995)

Conclusions
What conclusions can be drawn from this pool of research data? Control and
structure comes up again and again. The need for excellent plans, good
systems and processes and a clear vision are all repeating themes. Our reflec-
tion is that an optimal amount of structure is beneficial to change, whereas
too much creates organization sclerosis, or ‘stuckness’. It’s not as easy as
saying ‘be brilliantly organized and you will succeed’. Energy, passion and
continuous communication are all seen as essentials. But as we review this
information, we notice that energy, passion and communication are the stuff
of life itself. Organizations that lack these things, and have to legislate for
them, or coerce people into giving them, are probably in trouble at the core.
Maybe it’s the jointly held sense of purpose that gives an organization its life.
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO GETTING READY
FOR CHANGE
How do organizations get ready for change? In Readiness
for Organizational Change (2007) Aremenakis et al suggest
that the degree to which employees are prepared for
change is influenced by the degree to which they are
convinced that ‘a change is necessary… the change could
be implemented… the change would be organizationally
beneficial… the organizational leaders were committed to
the change… and the change would be personally beneficial.’
Todnem (2007) found that there is indeed a correlation between the level
of change readiness and the successful management of change. His research
added an additional communication strategy – the implicit communication
that management are also in the same situation as the rest of the staff and
should benefit (and suffer) from the effects of change in the same way,
whether it be provision of facilities or sharing in the rewards of change. The
lack of change readiness is an indicator of unsuccessful change manage-
ment; other contributory factors are lack of communication, change
management experience, support mechanisms and resources. As we saw
earlier, staff want and need ongoing communications around current and
future changes. They see ongoing change management and ongoing readi-
ness for change as more important than the notion of ongoing change:
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100 per cent of participants highlighted it as essential for any organization to
build and support an organizational culture and structure that facilitate
continuous management of change and a high level of readiness, or ability,
to implement change as and when required.
Todnem (2007)
Interestingly, Todnem also looked at whether people subscribed to the
planned or the emergent approach to change. A majority of respondents
suggested a mixed approach which led to the view that perhaps a
conscious approach to building change readiness as part of the organiza-
tional culture would lead to a greater probability of success, whether it be
planned or emergent.
Roberto and Levesque (2005) suggest you need to plan for change long
before the change is going to take place:
… the seed of effective change must be planted by embedding procedural
and behavioural changes in an organization long before the initiative is
launched… [T]o achieve effective institutionalization, core process and
enabling conditions must be embedded into the organization well before the
change initiative is rolled out… [T]o embed change in an organization,
managers have to create the conditions that enable employees to take
ownership of the new procedures and systems and integrate and apply the
key principles of the initiative to the way day-to-day work is done.
They suggest the four ‘antecedent processes’ of chartering, learning,
mobilizing and realigning, which contribute towards this enabling envi-
ronment in which change can then occur (see Table 10.2).
Pfeifer and Schmitt (2005) suggested that change success is often
thwarted by a lack of readiness:
…the management barrier reflects the problem that the focus of manage-
ment activities is dealing with daily business, not discussing new strategies.
The vision barrier arises when visions and strategies are not communicated
to employees in a comprehensible way… strategic objectives are not broken
down by means of target definitions on the employee level, with the result
that participation of those affected is not achieved. The resource barrier
means that resources are not purposefully deployed for the implementation
of the strategy. In strategic change, the endeavour to secure acceptance of
changes by all employees as a whole usually fails (the people barrier).
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They also saw that change agents needed to manage the balance
between overly planned change and uncontrolled and uncontained
emergent change:
Although the implementation process has to be planned and controlled, it is
important to understand that the planning of the implementation, and the
implementation itself, cannot be separated strictly. A change process is
dynamic and this dynamic always requires adaptations in planning.
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340
Table 10.2 The art of making change initiatives stick
Chartering The process by which the organization defines the initiative’s
purpose, its scope, and the way people will work with one
another on the programme.
• boundary setting – definition of the scope of the initiative
• team design – definition of roles, responsibilities, norms and
ground rules for teamwork.
Learning How managers develop, test, and refine ideas through
experimentation before full-scale roll-out.
• discovery – data and information gathering to define goals of
the initiative and means of achieving objectives;
• experimentation – testing and refinement of the initiative
prior to full-scale roll-out.
Mobilizing The use of symbolism, metaphors and compelling stories to
engage hearts as well as minds in order to build commitment to
the project.
• storytelling – use of stories and metaphors to create
compelling accounts about the need for the initiative and to
explain specific changes;
• symbolic action – use of symbols to reinforce credibility and
legitimacy of the core team and its message.
Realigning A series of activities aimed at re-shaping the organizational
context, including a redefinition of roles and reporting
relationships as well as new approaches to monitoring,
measurement and compensation.
• job redesign – alteration of underlying structures and
processes that support jobs;
• performance management – invention of new metrics to
measure the effectiveness of the initiative and incorporation of
the metrics into the employee performance appraisal process.
Source: Roberto and Levesque (2005)

Therefore the management should be willing and flexible to adapt even the
target definitions, made in the earlier stage of the change process, if changed
boundary conditions require this step.
Sirken, Keenan and Jackson (2005) highlighted four key factors
surrounding the preparation and general readiness of the organization
with respect to a change initiative. Since the original research, the Boston
Consulting group have used these successfully to predict outcomes in
more than 1,000 change initiatives across the globe. The four factors are:
• duration: ‘a long project that is reviewed frequently is more likely to succeed
than a short project that isn’t reviewed frequently’;
• integrity: ‘the extent to which companies can rely on teams of managers,
supervisors, and staff to execute change projects successfully’. This
comprises the mix of knowledge, skills and experience needed in
getting changes done on time, to budget and the required quality;
• commitment: the demonstrable willingness of top management, the
change team and the recipients of change to be engaged in the change;
• effort: the effort that is required ‘over and above the usual work that the
change initiative demands of people’. This includes:
– sponsors and senior management who may have multiple time
pressures and the next change initiative to concern them;
– the change team itself, who may be focusing purely on the project
implementation date rather than the ‘aftershock’ of the change;
– line managers, who often have the job of juggling ‘business as
usual’ as well as implementing the changes in their areas and
managing staff through the transition;
– employees involved in implementing change, who may need
additional resources to do this, for example by a reduction in
normal workload, backfilling or management recognition that
there will be a performance dip.
Balogun and Hope Hailey (2004) approach change by asking some very
clear questions about the change itself and about what ‘levers’ need to be
pulled to implement successful change.
They then go on to look at some of the different things you need to
consider when planning and managing change, what they call the design
choices (Table 10.4).
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Emerging inquiries
342
Table 10.3 Identifying the ‘levers’ of change
Time How quickly is change needed? Is the organization in crisis or is
it concerned with longer-term strategic development?
Scope What degree of change is needed? Realignment or transformation?
Does the change affect the whole organization or only part of it?
Preservation What organizational assets, characteristics and practices need to
be maintained and protected during change?
Diversity Are the different staff/professional groups and divisions within
the organization relatively homogeneous or more diverse in
terms of values, norms and attitudes?
Capability What is the level of organizational, managerial and personal
capability to implement change?
Capacity How much resource can the organization invest in the proposed
change in terms of cash, people and time?
Readiness How ready for change are employees within the organization?
for change Are they aware of the need for change and motivated to deliver
the changes?
Power Where is power vested within the organization? How much
latitude of discretion does the unit needing to change and the
change leader possess?
Source: Balogun and Hope Hailey (2004)
Table 10.4 Design choice
Change path The type of change to be undertaken in terms of the nature of
the change and the desired end result.
Change start Where the change is initiated and developed, which could be
point summarized simplistically as top-down or bottom-up, but
there are other choices.
Change style The management style of the implementation, such as highly
collaborative or more directive.
Change target The target of the change interventions, in terms of people’s
attitudes and values, behaviours or outputs.
Change levers The range of levers and interventions to be deployed across four
sub-systems – technical, political, cultural and interpersonal.
Change role Who is to take responsibility for leading and implementing the
changes.
Source: Balogun and Hope Hailey (2004)

LEADING CHANGE
Chapter 4, Leading Change, looks at how you can successfully lead and
manage change from a number of perspectives and highlights a number
of leading researchers, authors and practitioners in the field. Since the
first edition we have become very interested in further exploration of
the ideas set out in Chapter 4, and have begun an inquiry into the possi-
bility that different leadership roles are required in different organiza-
tional contexts. This goes beyond a simple ‘situational leadership’
approach of looking at one-to-one relationships, examining what roles
or combinations of roles are required of leaders of change to serve the
organizational need.
We searched the literature, and combined this with our knowledge of
many different sets of leadership competences from organizations we
work with. From this process we derived a set of five leadership roles
which cover the full set of possibilities using a clustered approach.
We invited research participants, all experienced managers or
Organization Development professionals, to use their organizational
wisdom to select the leadership roles they thought would be most effec-
tive in a range of contexts. We wanted to find out if different leadership
roles, or combinations of roles, matched up to any particular contexts. We
asked participants to select the one or two leadership roles that they
thought would work best in each of a range of organizational contexts.
The summary of results appears in Figure 10.1 below. It is clear from
this information that a wide range of roles are useful, and that combina-
tions of roles work well. There are some interesting patterns to notice
about particular contexts, but the overall message is that all the roles are
useful at times.
In our book Making Sense of Leadership, we describe our research, set
out the results and conclude that there are five roles to select from
which leaders need to use flexibly if they are to be versatile performers.
Again, we concluded that there is no one right way, but there are some
guidelines.
The five roles (see Figure 10.2 for a summary) are:
• The Edgy Catalyser: focuses on creating discomfort to catalyse change;
• The Visionary Motivator: focuses on engagement and buy-in to energize
people;
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Emerging inquiries
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Figure 10.1 The five leadership roles
Source: Cameron and Green (2008)
Figure 10.2 Summary of the five leadership roles
Source: Cameron and Green (2008)
344

• The Measured Connector: focuses on sense of purpose and connec-
tivity across the organization to help change to emerge;
• The Tenacious Implementer: focuses on projects plans, deadlines and
progress to achieve results;
• The Thoughtful Architect: focuses on frameworks, designs and complex
fit between strategies and concepts to ensure that ideas provide a sound
basis for change.
HOW DO YOU KNOW WHETHER
CHANGE IS WORKING?
How do you know whether the change process you are
involved in is working or not, or whether you would be
more successful if you were leading it in different ways,
with a different style or with different activities? We have
begun to notice that depending on what your prevailing
paradigm is, or the way your organization’s culture works,
the monitoring and evaluation of change will give different
answers about what is working, what the issues are, and
what needs to be done next.
We can look at evaluation in a number of ways. In a rigorously planned
approach the outcomes will have been articulated at the outset, and it will
then be relatively easy to see the measures of success or otherwise – cost
reduction, increase in stakeholder value, reduced absenteeism, increased
customer satisfaction, increased employee satisfaction, reduced head-
count, increase in quality standards, etc.
However, the world and the organization may have moved on while
the changes were being made, and it is possible that the objectives that
seemed important at the start may be viewed differently by the end.
Indeed, senior management teams, like politicians, can be very skilled at
changing the objectives for change for their own purposes.
Do these hard, preset measures of success really give us the informa-
tion about progress that we need? Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers (1999)
question the wisdom of solely relying on hard measurement. They high-
light six observations:
The right way to manage change?
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1. people and systems notice only what they consider to be important;
2. having a set methodology can get in the way of the context – ‘critical
information is being generated right now. Failing to notice the “now”, or
staying stuck in past assumptions, is very dangerous’;
3. what people notice will change over time – ‘looking for information only
within rigid categories leads to blindness, which is also dangerous’;
4. organizational boundaries are permeable – ‘new and surprising infor-
mation can get in’, if allowed;
5. feedback is not an arid affair but can offer up important information
on what needs to be addressed;
6. feedback is an information flow which allows those within (and
without) the system to better understand what needs to happen to
sustain the system.
They see that there are some clear critical distinctions between feedback
and measurement (see Table 10.5).
So the approach employed can affect how we see the outcomes and how
quickly and in what manner the change is seen to bear fruit. Our
approach to change also affects how we analyse what’s going well and
what’s going wrong, and what we do about it. Using the four change
metaphors introduced in Chapter 3, we examine here the difference in
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346
Table 10.5 Some important distinctions between feedback and measurement
Feedback Measurement
Context dependent One size fits all
Self-determined Imposed
The system chooses what to notice Criteria are established externally
Information accepted from anywhere Information in fixed categories only
System creates own meaning Meaning is predetermined
Newness, surprise are essential Prediction, routine are valued
Focus on adaptability and growth Focus on stability and control
Meaning evolves Meaning remains static
System co-adapts System adapts to the measures
Source: Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers (1999)

approach to evaluating change, and what can be done if things seem to
be moving slowly or simply ‘not working’.
Machine metaphor
Using a machine metaphor when measuring change will produce a clear
set of measurable outcomes which can be monitored and evaluated
throughout the process. Many of the evaluations of change projects that
appear earlier in this chapter have been based on projects which derive
from this metaphor. The evaluations are probably done only on projects
where there is a clear set of measurable objectives, tight timescales and a
detailed project specification of scope and functionality. As we have seen,
many of these projects do not actually deliver on 100 per cent of their
objectives. However, if we look again at the figures we might begin to
enquire: is change necessarily a failure if it does not meet 100 per cent of
its original aims and objectives? And should allowance be made when
planning that the original brief will probably need modifying to accom-
modate external shifts and changes along the way?
Managing change through this metaphor necessitates a focus on ‘hard’
rather than ‘soft’ aspects of the change, and the expected outcomes may be
a little rigid. The presence of change management expertise and excellent
planning are likely to be the most obvious ways of getting this type of
change initiative to work well, together with some flexibility of goals and
a very experienced and confident project manager. Luck plays a big part
too; if the project is completed before the world changes, than that’s lucky!
Political metaphor
Managing change through the political metaphor is all about satisfying
key stakeholder groupings. Anyone who has seen how governments
work in the legislative process, especially when there is just a slim
majority, will recognize that the final agreed piece of legislation is not
necessarily the ideal scenario but actually a compromise, a negotiated
agreement, which satisfies the majority of those who have some power.
Change is a success if key stakeholders are satisfied and opinions and
policies have been changed. The process of change is one of successfully
negotiating one’s way through the myriad stakeholder interests.
Success in this arena will be enhanced through the effective and effi-
cient use of stakeholder identification, mapping and management, with
The right way to manage change?
347

influencing skills at a premium. The change agent needs to demonstrate
their powers of power-broking and negotiating. Failure will appear as
either stalemate or a disgruntled but powerful stakeholder who may
resort to sabotage or sulking. A real, shared sense of common purpose
would very likely shift the whole political picture, if it could be achieved.
Organism metaphor
Managing change through the organism metaphor is about ensuring the
effectiveness and efficiency of information flows across the organization
and its environment. A key aspect of successful change management
within this paradigm is the focus on organizational learning and respon-
siveness. This means ensuring that people are factored into the changes,
in order to enhance the capacity and capability of the organization to
meet the external drivers for change.
Hard and fast change objectives are much more difficult within this
metaphor and so it is harder to be concrete when it comes to ongoing
monitoring of change success. Clear goals are not necessarily known at
the beginning, although a vision, direction and a set of core principles
might well be. Sometimes these types of initiative get lost in their own
process – like the introduction of performance appraisal, or tackling
customer survey data. The point is often forgotten.
Success will be enhanced by focusing on information flows, ensuring
that there is good knowledge of the external world and developing
internal capability, capacity and competence through participation. The
change agent needs to demonstrate the art of facilitating information
exchange and organizational learning. Some ‘hard’ targets are often
extremely useful to sharpen this type of initiative’s performance.
Flux and transformation metaphor
Managing change through the flux and transformation metaphor is about
creating a well-contained space for change to occur. Collective vision and
direction, together with a strong sense of organizational values, provide
the ‘stakes in the ground’ demarcating parameters for change. Feedback
mechanisms are important and not treated in an evaluative way, but
more as data to be made sense of.
Success will be helped by focusing on tensions, conflicts and energy
flows. The change agent’s task is to help to contain change issues and
Emerging inquiries
348

create the right conditions for change. They do this by spotting things
and pointing things out – blowing on the embers and fanning the flames.
The big challenge with this way of approaching change is that there is a
chaotic feel to part of the process, which can lead to panic and knee-jerk
reactions. Leaders need to have the confidence that results will come,
stick to their sense of purpose and focus on ensuring that the vision is a
collective one.
STOP AND THINK!
Q 10.1 Do you consider different types of change can be managed more
effectively by adopting different approaches to change?
Q 10.2 Reflecting on your personality, in what ways might you be drawn
to the different approaches?
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Managing change is a problematic business with most research suggesting
70 per cent of change efforts fail to fully meet their original brief.
Successful change appears to require excellent planning, good systems
and processes and a clear vision. Energy, passion and continuous commu-
nication are all seen as essentials.
Entering the change consciously, whether it be planned or emergent,
will allow you to understand the nature and context of the change, iden-
tify its key dimensions and develop relevant strategies and styles.
In leading change you need to be a flexible leader (or at least, part of a
flexible leadership team), and be conscious of the appropriate combina-
tions of leadership roles for the particular context:
• the Edgy Catalyser;
• the Visionary Motivator;
• the Measured Connector;
• the Tenacious Implementer;
• the Thoughtful Architect.
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Evaluating change progress by focusing on measures will give different
answers to those found when focusing on feedback.
Operating from within one of the four metaphors will determine one’s
approach and leadership style and how one evaluates the change. It will
also inform what learning comes out of the evaluation and what a leader
should do if things look like they ’re not going well.
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350

Conclusion
So what did we set out to do, and what did we achieve here? We wanted
to write a book that allowed leaders of all persuasions to dip into the rich
casket of theory on change, and to come out with their own jewels of
learning. We most of all wanted to help to create the time and space for
people to reflect on the changes facing them in the past, now and in the
future by making the theory accessible, asking the right questions and
providing practical glimpses of our experiences. We hope all of this will
stimulate new thoughts and new connections.
Two significant messages emerge from writing this book. These are
explained below. We also want two-way communication with our
readers, and want to make that possible through this section.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PERIPHERAL VISION
The first message we want to convey is about the importance for leaders
of being awake and being aware. The notion of peripheral vision is a key
one to keep in mind. Leaders need to wake up to what is going on around
them. This means noticing more than the obvious, the loud or the directly
visible. It means having an awareness of what is going on at the edges,
and being observant about motion and change. Whichever assumptions
351

a leader employs about the nature of change (machine, political system,
organism or flux and transformation) there is a need to be extremely
observant about what is going on in and around the organization.
We see theories and models as helpful in the process of gaining
clearer peripheral vision. If leaders have a language and a framework
for noticing things, they begin to notice more. As a young student of
music, I can remember studying sonata form, which seemed only
mildly interesting as a piece of theory. However, it led to increased
enjoyment of musical shapes and I began to notice more, and listen
with a sharper ear.
How do leaders achieve peripheral vision? Well, it does take time. But
it means talking and listening to a wide cross-section of people. It means
asking good questions and maintaining open relationships. It means
making sure that enough time is given to leadership as well as manage-
ment. And, most painfully for some, it means spending more time gath-
ering information and spending less time making decisions.
FINDING THE SPACE TO REFLECT
The second message is about the importance of reflection time. Leaders
benefit greatly from taking regular, focused time to reflect on what is
going on around them (the fruits of their peripheral vision), what is
happening right now, what the options are and where they are person-
ally in all this. Their organizations benefit too because leadership action is
considered, rather than knee-jerk.
Can this reflection be done alone in the car, or in the bath? Well, to some
extent. However, it is easy to avoid anxieties by making quick decisions
when you are alone. It is only when we are with other people we respect
and trust that we really begin to consider other options and look difficul-
ties in the eye.
We recommend coaching or action learning if you are serious about
developing yourself as a leader. This can range from a regular meeting
with a close colleague to a longer-term commitment to working with a
group of leaders, or it can involve a series of one-to-one sessions with a
professional leadership coach. Happily, this is becoming more acceptable
in many organizations and seen less as a sign of weakness.
Making sense of change management
352

HOW TO GET IN TOUCH WITH THE AUTHORS
OF THIS BOOK
Comments
We are interested in hearing from you if you have enjoyed the book or if
you have any suggestions or ideas that would improve it. Please send
your thoughts to us via the contact details below.
Credits
We have made strenuous efforts to get in touch with and acknowledge
those responsible for the ideas and theories contained in this book.
However we realize that we may have unintentionally neglected to
mention some people. If you are aware of any piece of work contained
here that has not been properly credited, please do let us know so that we
can make amends in future editions of this book.
Coaching and consultancy
If you would like any information about our coaching and consultancy
work in connection with managing change and leadership development,
we would be delighted to hear from you.
Esther –
Website: www.cameronchange.co.uk
E-mail: esther@cameronchange.co.uk
Mike –
Website: www.transitionalspace.co.uk
E-mail: mike@transitionalspace.co.uk
Conclusion
353

354
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362

activist 17, 18, 19
adjourning 82
advocate 158
affirmations 29
anchoring 30–31
Ashridge Management College
65
attitudes 26, 27
Bandler, Richard 28
Batten, D 113–14
model of change 113–14,
135
Beck, Aaron 26
behaviourism 19–25
Belbin, Meredith 88–90, 95
team roles 90, 217, 219
belief system theory 26
Bennis, Warren 142, 143–44,
173–74, 178, 179
Berkhard, R F 116–19
change formula 116–19, 117,
135, 192–93, 280
Bion, W R 83–84, 95
Boston Consulting Group 341
branding 275–88, see also
rebranding
brand personality 277
brand wheel 277
Bridges, William 123–26, 127, 247,
250
managing the transition
123–26, 170–73
Briggs, Katherine 51
Bullock, R J 113–14
model of change 113–14, 135
Index
(italics indicate figures or tables in the text)
363

Index
364
business process re-engineering
(BPR) 296–98, 307
example 297
risks 297
typical approach 298
Carnall, Colin 126–28, 127
change management model
126–28, 136
change
behavioural approach 19–25,
41, 59, 61, 244
cognitive approach 25–31, 41,
59, 61, 244
complex 310–30
critical points 39
evaluating 345–50
fears about 56–57
Gestalt approach 47–50
humanistic approach 40–50,
41, 59, 61
individual 5, 9, 12–61
internal world 13
IT-based process 281–303
leading 5, 138–86, 343–45
learning and 14–19
management interventions 60,
331–50
organizational 5, 97–137
outside world 13
personality and 50–53
preparing for 338–42
psychodynamic approach
32–40, 41, 59, 61, 244
research 332–34
resistance to 57–58, 121
responses to 54–60
risks 200
success factors 334–37
team 5, 62–96
techniques for 29–31
see also strategic change process
change agent 44, 58, 158, 340
IT 292–96
change curve 35
Change Management Learning
Centre 334
Change Tracking 335–36
Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development (CIPD)
188–89, 192
classical conditioning 20
coaching 160, 275
Collins, Tim 145–46
communication 205–07, 338
‘choice points’ 323
complex adaptive systems and
319
mergers/acquisitions and 230–32
competence
conscious 16–17, 17
unconscious 16–17, 17
complex adaptive systems
312–21, 330
attractors 317–18, 318
characteristics 312–13
management of paradox
319–20
polarities 319–20
power relations 318–19
rules of interaction 316–17
self-organization 315–16
complex change 310–30
leadership and 327–28
organizational change and
312–21

Index
365
principles 315
tools to support 321–27
complexity metaphor 310
Conner, Daryl 156
Covey, Steve 174–77, 179
habit of leaders 176–77
cultural change 185, 234–38,
255–80
case studies 262–68,
268–75,
guidelines for 259–61
culture 255–57, 266–67
information 303–05
customer care 263–64
cycle of change 116
Dent, Eric 313–14, 330
detachment 30
dialogue 322–23
diversification 225
Ellis, Albert 26
emotional intelligence 50, 159,
165–66, 179
Enron 229
Erikson, Erik 174, 175
Evans, Paul 3–4
extraversion 51
Fayol, Henri 100
feedback 346
feedback loops 209, 321
feelings 27
mergers/acquisitions 249
redundancy 211–12
flux and transformation metaphor
99, 104–07, 107, 134, 141, 153,
310, 348–49
forming 78
four-stage team alignment model
215, 220
framework 2
freezing 56, 111, 191
Freud, Sigmund 42
future search 325
Gandhi, Mahatma 148
Gardener, Howard 147–48
Gaughan, P A 223–24
General Electric (GE) 225
Pathfinder Model for
acquisitions 241
Gestalt perspective 16, 47–50
cycle 48, 49–50
globalization 1, 71
goals, setting 27–28, 74
Goleman, Daniel 50, 159–60, 162,
163–64, 179, 261
Grinder, John 28
groups 63–65
definition 63
difference to teams 64
Harris, R T 116–19
change formula 116–19, 135,
192–93
Heifetz, R 149, 178
Herzberg, Frederick 24
Heraclitus 13
homeostasis 111, 112, 121, 128
hygiene factors 24
implementer 157–58
incompetence
conscious 16–17, 17
unconscious 16–17, 17

individual change 12–61
approaches to 14
impact of mergers/acquisitions
242–44, 245
impact of redundancy 209–14,
210
introversion 51
intuition 51
Isaacs, William 322–23
ISPAT 230
IT-based process change 281–303
benefits realization 281–83
business process re-engineering
(BPR) 296–98
enterprise architectures 287
guiding principles 286–87
information culture 303–05
PROGRESS methodology
300–02, 301
role of IT management
287–291
roll-out process 292
SAP systems 283
socio-technical design 298–300,
300
strategic grid 285
strategy and 284–87, 306
IT management 287–91
change managers 292–96
collaborative 294–96
competencies 290–91
consultant/expert 293–94
knowledge 295
pair of hands 294
skills 295
survey of projects 333–34
judging 51
Kanter, Rosabeth Moss 169–70,
179
Keidal, Robert 66
Kellner-Rogers, Myron 345–46
King, Martin Luther, Jr. 146, 148
Kolb, David 17–18
Komansky, David 234–35
Kotter, J P 114–16, 144, 151, 152,
179, 250, 251, 272
eight steps model 114–16 , 135,
166, 168
reasons change fails 336–37
Kubler-Ross, Elizabeth 32–34
Kubler-Ross model 32–35, 34, 37,
244, 247, 253
Laurie, D 149, 178
leadership 3, 202, 138–86, 265–66
adaptive 149, 178
beginnings 172–73
collective 73
compared to management 144
complex change and 327–29
connective 150–51, 178
dimensions 5
dispersed 153–56, 178
embodying a story 147–48, 178
emotional competencies 163–64
endings 171
executive 155, 156
hero CEO 154, 178
inner leadership 165, 166,
167–68, 179
local line 155, 156
mergers/acquisitions 242–52
network 155, 156
organizational metaphors and
139–40, 153
Index
366

Index
367
outcomes 5
outer leadership 165, 166,
167–68, 179
paradoxes 4
peripheral vision 351–52
perseverance 169–70, 179
presence 329
principle-centred 174–77
project planning/
implementation 203–04
roles 144, 153–66, 343–45, 344,
349
self-knowledge 173–74
styles 142, 159–66, 261
transformational 147, 178
visionary 142–47, 145
learning 14–19
cycle 17–18, 17
definition 14, 17–18
dip 15
learning organization 314
Lego 4
Leschly, Jan 234
Lewin, Kurt 55, 56, 110–13
forcefield analysis 57, 110
three step model of change 55,
110–13, 135, 191
Lipman-Blumen, Jean 149–51,
178
Luther-King, Martin 146, 148, 180
machine metaphor 99, 100–01,
106, 134, 190–91, 192, 140, 153,
347
managers 144, 248–49
as role models 261
IT 287–91
Mandl, Alex 229
Marconi 225
Maslow, A 42–44
McCaulley, Mary 87–88
McKinsey seven ‘S’ model 122
McGregor, Douglas 23–24
Mead, Margaret 148
measurement 346
mergers/acquisitions 126, 222–54,
332
conglomerate 224
cultural issues 234–38
customers and 239–40
defensive 226
five waves of 223
golden rules 253
horizontal 224, 225–26
impact on individuals 242–44,
245
impact on organizations
250–52
impact on productivity 232
impact on teams 244–47, 247
lessons from research 228–242
organizational structures and
233
public sector 229
purpose of 223–28
reasons for 227–28, 253
restructuring and 249–50
seven deadly sins 240
trust 252
vertical 224, 226
MIT Dialogue Project 322
model 2
Morgan, Gareth 98, 99, 101–02,
104, 105, 107, 134
motivation 23–24
Myers, Isabel 51

Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorTM
(MBTITM) 14, 51–52, 53, 217,
219
personality types 51–52
teams and 86–87, 95
Nadler, David 119–22
congruence model 119–22, 120,
136, 192
National Audit Office 229, 232,
242
needs
hierarchy of 42–44, 43
neuro-linguistic programming 28
Nevis, E 49–50
Noer, David 209–14
four-level intervention model
212
norming 81
O’ Neill, Mary Beth 156–59
open space technology 323–25
operant conditioning 20
organisms metaphor 99, 103–04,
106, 134, 142, 153, 348
organizational behaviour 256, see
also culture
organizational change 97–137
complex change and 312–21
impact of redundancy 210
metaphors 97–109
mergers/acquisitions 250–52
models/approaches 109–33
teams and 214–20
see also restructuring
organizational culture 127, 250
mergers/acquisitions 234–38
organizational history 54, 55
organizational metaphors 98–99
combining 141
flux and transformation 99,
104–07, 107, 134, 141, 153,
310, 348–49
leadership and 139–40, 153
organisms 99, 103–04, 106, 134,
142, 153
political systems 99, 101–02,
106, 134, 140–41, 347–48
organizational structure
mergers/acquisitions and 233–34
types 198–99
see also restructuring
organizations 152
Owen, Harrison 323–24, 327
pattern breaking 30
patterned talking 318
Pavlov, Ivan 20
PeopleSoft 295
perceiving 51
peripheral vision 351–52
Perls, Fritz 47
performing 82
personality types 50–53, 61
polarity thinking 320
political systems metaphor 99,
101–02, 106, 134, 140–41,
347–48
positive listings 29
positive thinking 27
pragmatist 17, 18, 19
PROGRESS methodology for
process improvement
300–02, 301
project management 113, 201–02
project manager 70
Index
368

project sponsor 70
project team 70
Prosci Benchmarking Report 334
punishments 21
rational analysis 313
‘rebranding’ 257–58
case study 268–75
redundancy 209–14
reflection 352
reflector 17, 18, 19
reinforcement strategies 22–23
financial 22
non-financial 22–23
reframing 30
restructuring 187–221
communication 205–07
consultation 208
critical success factors 194–95
design options 195–96
generic approach 193
learning from previous projects
201–02
mergers/acquisitions 249–50
monitoring/review 209
process 190–209
project planning/implementation
203–04, 207
reasons for 189–90
redundancy 209–14
risk assessment 196–97, 200
supporting mechanisms
207–08
rewards 21
Roffey Park Management Institute
cultural issues 235–36, 238
mergers 231, 253–54
Rogers, Carl 44–46
Santa Fe Institute 312–13, 316
Satir, Virginia 36–38, 36, 213, 259
Scharmer, O 328, 329
Schein, Edgar 14, 53, 55–60, 61,
243, 256
self-actualization 42, 43–44
self-awareness 163, 164–65,
175–76, 179
self-management 163, 165
Senge, P 128–32, 250, 314, 329
dispersed leadership 153–56
systemic model of change
128–32, 136
sensing 51
Shaw, Patricia 132–33, 136, 316,
322, 323
Skinner, B F 20
social awareness 164
social skills 164
socio-technical design process
298–300, 300
sponsor 156–57
Stacey, Ralph 82–83, 132–33, 136,
318–19, 321
stakeholders 259–60
storming 80–81
storytelling 321–22
strategic change process 182, 183,
184, 205
characteristics 185–86
strategy 5, 181
IT and 284–87
restructuring and 190, 193–94 ,
195–96
synergy 224–25
Tavistock Institute of Human
Relations 299
Index
369

Taylor, Frederick 100
team change 62–96, see also
Tuckman, B
team dynamics 86–91
team roles 75
teams 3
beginnings 246–47, 250
change 73, 93, 214–20
conflict and 84
creativity and 84–85
definition 63–64
dependency and 83
difference to groups 64
effectiveness 74–78, 77, 95
endings 244, 250
four-stage alignment model
215, 220
impact of organizational change
on 91–96, 93–94
interpersonal relationships 76
inter-team relations 76
leadership 82
management 72–73, 93
matrix 71, 93
mergers/acquisitions 244–47,
247
mission 74
need for 65–66
networked 72, 93
parallel 69–70, 93
processes 75–76
project 70, 93
roles in 88–90
self-managed 69
stages of development 79
types 66–73, 67–68, 96
virtual 71–72, 93
work 68–69, 93
technique 2
Teligent 229
Thatcher, Margaret 148
theorist 17, 18, 19
Theory X and Y 23–25
thinking 51
Todnem, R 338–39
tool 2
trust 252
Tuckman, B 78–82, 95
model of team change 78,
80–82, 246
Tushman, M L 119–22
congruence model 119–22, 120,
136, 192
unfreezing 56, 111, 191
values 26, 251, 260, 265, 274, 328
brand 277–79
visualizations 29–30
Wharton Management School
281
Wheatley, M 327–28, 345, 346
World Café 326–27
World Café Community
Foundation 326–27
world view descriptors 313
Worldcom 229
Index
370

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Copyright
Table of contents
Acknowledgements
Introduction
WHO THIS BOOK IS AIMED AT
THE BASIC CONTENT OF THE BOOK
WHY EXPLORE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CHANGE?
OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURE
MESSAGE TO READERS
Part One The underpinning theory
1 Individual change
INTRODUCTION
LEARNING AND THE PROCESS OF CHANGE
THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO CHANGE
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO CHANGE
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO CHANGE
THE HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY APPROACH TO CHANGE
PERSONALITY AND CHANGE
MANAGING CHANGE IN SELF AND OTHERS
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
2 Team change
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS A GROUP AND WHEN IS IT A TEAM?
WHY WE NEED TEAMS
THE TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL TEAMS
HOW TO IMPROVE TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
WHAT TEAM CHANGE LOOKS LIKE
THE LEADERSHIP ISSUES IN TEAM CHANGE
HOW INDIVIDUALS AFFECT TEAM DYNAMICS
HOW WELL TEAMS INITIATE AND ADAPT TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
3 Organizational change
HOW ORGANIZATIONS REALLY WORK
MODELS OF AND APPROACHES TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
4 Leading change
INTRODUCTION
VISIONARY LEADERSHIP
ROLES THAT LEADERS PLAY
LEADERSHIP STYLES AND SKILLS
DIFFERENT LEADERSHIP FOR DIFFERENT PHASES OF CHANGE
THE IMPORTANCE OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE AND INNER RESOURCES
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Part Two The applications
5 Restructuring
REASONS FOR RESTRUCTURING
THE RESTRUCTURING PROCESS
RESTRUCTURING FROM AN INDIVIDUAL CHANGE PERSPECTIVE: THE SPECIAL CASE OF REDUNDANCY
ENABLING TEAMS TO ADDRESS ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
CONCLUSION
6 Mergers and acquisitions
THE PURPOSE OF MERGER AND ACQUISITION ACTIVITY
LESSONS FROM RESEARCH INTO SUCCESSFUL AND UNSUCCESSFUL MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
APPLYING THE CHANGE THEORY: GUIDELINES FOR LEADERS
SUMMARY
7 Cultural change
GUIDELINES FOR ACHIEVING SUCCESSFUL CULTURAL CHANGE
CASE STUDY ONE: ALIGNING THE ORGANIZATION
CASE STUDY TWO: REBRANDING THE ORGANIZATION
CASE STUDY THREE: CREATING AN EMPLOYER BRAND
8 IT-based process change
STRATEGY AND IT
THE ROLE OF IT MANAGEMENT
THE NEED FOR IT CHANGE MANAGERS
ACHIEVING PROCESS CHANGE
CHANGING THE INFORMATION CULTURE
NEW RULES FOR A NEW AGE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Part Three Emerging inquiries
9 Complex change
INTRODUCTION
WHEN IS CHANGE COMPLEX?
UNDERSTANDING HOW COMPLEXITY SCIENCE APPLIES TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
TOOLS THAT SUPPORT COMPLEX CHANGE
THE ROLE OF LEADERS IN COMPLEX CHANGE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
10 The right way to manage change?
INTRODUCTION
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO GETTING READY FOR CHANGE
LEADING CHANGE
HOW DO YOU KNOW WHETHER CHANGE IS WORKING?
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Conclusion
THE IMPORTANCE OF PERIPHERAL VISION
FINDING THE SPACE TO REFLECT
HOW TO GET IN TOUCH WITH THE AUTHORS OF THIS BOOK
References
Index
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/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice

<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (None) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 524288 /LockDistillerParams true /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Preserve /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile (None) /AlwaysEmbed [ true /LucidaConsole /LucidaSans /LucidaSans-Demi /LucidaSans-DemiItalic /LucidaSans-Italic /LucidaSansUnicode /Mangal-Regular /PalatinoCE-Italic /PalatinoCE-Regular ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 150 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 600 /ColorImageDepth 8 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true
/GrayImageMinResolution 150
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth 8
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /Average
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict << /K -1 >>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None)
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName
/PDFXTrapped /False
/SyntheticBoldness 1.000000
/Description << /ENU (Thomson Learning Techno Task Force settings for Acrobat 6. To be used by Compositors for all Thomson Learning approved Print vendors. January 2005.) >>
>> setdistillerparams
<< /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice